Disproportionate Minority Contact Research Articles

The Importance of Evaluation and Monitoring Within the Disproportionate Minority Contact (DMC) Mandate

In 2002, the reauthorization of the Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention Act of 1974 required that states participating in the Formula Grants Program must put forth a good faith effort at addressing juvenile delinquency and the presence of minority youth at all decision-making points of the juvenile justice system without the use of numerical quotas. The last decade has brought about increases in states’ efforts at identifying and assessing the extent of disproportionate minority contact (DMC) across juvenile court contacts. Many states have already implemented or are currently implementing intervention and prevention efforts at reducing DMC. However, the segments of identification, assessment, and intervention are only three of the five phases of the DMC mandate. In light of the progression of the DMC mandate since its original implementation in 1988, the purpose of this essay is to spark discussion on the future of examining DMC in the juvenile justice system through a researcher’s perspective. Various topics that relate to DMC are presented as ideas for readers to consider, as they progress with their research agendas.

Understanding Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Arrest: The Role of Individual, Home, School, and Community Characteristics.

Contact with the justice system can lead to a range of poor health and social outcomes. While persons of color are disproportionately represented in both the juvenile and criminal justice systems, reasons for these patters remain unclear. This study sought to examine the extent and sources of differences in arrests during adolescence and young adulthood among blacks, whites, and Hispanics in the USA. Multilevel cross-sectional logistic regression analyses were conducted using data from waves I and IV of the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health (n = 12,752 respondents). Results showed significantly higher likelihood of having ever been arrested among blacks, when compared to whites, even after controlling for a range of delinquent behaviors (odds ratio = 1.58, 95 % confidence interval = 1.27, 1.95). These black-white disparities were no longer present after accounting for racial composition of the neighborhood, supporting the growing body of research demonstrating the importance of contextual variables in driving disproportionate minority contact with the justice system.

Disproportionate Minority Contact.

The overrepresentation of racial/ethnic minorities within the criminal justice system relative to their population percentage, a phenomenon termed disproportionate minority contact, has been examined within general adult and adolescent offender populations; yet few studies have tested whether this phenomenon extends to juvenile sexual offenders (JSOs). In addition, few studies have examined whether offender race/ethnicity influences registration and notification requirements, which JSOs are subject to in some U.S. states. The present study assessed for disproportionate minority contact among general delinquent offenders and JSOs, meaning it aimed to test whether the criminal justice system treats those accused of sexual and non-sexual offenses differently by racial/ethnic group. Furthermore, racial/ethnic group differences in risk, legal classification, and sexual offending were examined for JSOs. Results indicated disproportionate minority contact was present among juveniles with non-sexual offenses and JSOs in Alabama. In addition, offense category and risk scores differed between African American and European American JSOs. Finally, registration classifications were predicted by offending characteristics, but not race/ethnicity. Implications and future directions regarding disproportionate minority contact among JSOs and social and legal policy affecting JSOs are discussed.

Disproportionate Minority Contact Among Juveniles Adjudicated for Sexual, Violent, and General Offending

The present study tested whether differences in violence exposure and parent and peer attachment help explain why disproportionate minority contact is lower among adolescents adjudicated for sexual offending than among adolescents adjudicated for other offenses. The 1,109 male juvenile offenders recruited from a juvenile detention center were interviewed, completed self-report measures, and legal documentation of prior offenses was obtained. Using a hierarchical multinomial logistic regression, a unique constellation of factors were found to predict sexual and violent offending relative to general offending. Moreover, the influence of race/ethnicity was diminished in the final model, suggesting disproportionate minority contact is partially explained by contextual factors.

Unjust Disparities? The Impact of Race on Juvenile Risk Assessment Outcomes

Research on risk assessments has illustrated many utilitarian purposes of these tools, including the robust prediction of recidivism and uniformity in correctional decision making. Recently, however, Former U.S. Attorney General Eric Holder vocalized his position that actuarial risk assessments could be unintentionally contributing to disproportionate minority contact in the correctional system. This study used data from approximately 2,600 juvenile delinquents assessed with the Ohio Youth Assessment System–Disposition Instrument to examine these claims across subsamples of White and Black youth. Bivariate and multivariate analyses indicated that the instrument predicted recidivism similarly across the two groups. There were slightly more prediction errors for Black youth than White youth; however, these differences may be the result of methodological factors rather than empirical realities. The article concluded with a discussion of the implications that potential racial biases have on risk assessment research and practice.

Weapon and drug offenses and juvenile disproportionate minority contact: an impact assessment and practical discussion

Research on the targeted enforcement of weapons and drug offenses suggests that policies and street-level decisions around those offenses may play a role in disproportionate minority involvement with the justice system. Little research has directly examined the relative influence of these types of offenses on juvenile justice decisions. The analyses were completed using official case records from police agencies (n = 11) and juvenile courts (n = 6) as well as data from focus groups (n = 8) and key informant interviews (n = 56) conducted with personnel in those agencies. The quantitative data used here comprise records from 87,983 cases with measures of youth socio-demographics, case characteristics, offense type, and key juvenile court outcomes. The findings suggest that, although the effects of race as well as weapons and drug-offenses vary across outcome decisions and with the introduction of controls for other relevant factors, race-based disparities often persist in multivariate models. Qualitative data analysis finds that system actors tend to see the weapons and drug offense-based disparities emerging from structural conditions that are often mediated by culture and differential offending. Together, these findings offer important points of departure for further research and discussion of practical responses to disproportionate minority contact for the benefit of youth, communities, and the system itself.

Demographics.

There is a large proportion of minority youth involved in the juvenile justice system. Disproportionate minority contact (DMC) occurs when the proportion of any ethnic group is higher at any given stage in the juvenile justice process than the proportion of this group in the general population. There are several theories explaining the presence and persistence of DMC. This article reviews the history of DMC and the theories and implications of this problem. It discusses several targets for interventions designed to reduce DMC and offer resources in this area.

Applying a Socio-Ecological Framework to Thematic Analysis Using a Statewide Assessment of Disproportionate Minority Contact in the United States

Disproportionate minority contact (DMC) in the United States represents a critical social challenge to promoting the ideals and values of social justice. The ecological nature of DMC, a phenomenon emerging from the intersection of micro- and macro-level factors, necessitates the application of systems theories in understanding the issue and designing solutions to address it. This article illustrates the application of socio-ecological systems theory in thematic analysis, drawing associations across multiple systems between contributing factors to DMC in the juvenile justice system in North Carolina, USA. Analysis examined data from 6 focus groups comprised of 55 statewide stakeholders involved in the juvenile justice continuum. Application of socio-ecological systems theory in thematic analysis revealed structural and individual conditions associated with DMC, to include institutional racism demonstrated by biases present in stakeholders across schools and the juvenile justice system. The article presents ways in which micro to macro factors influence social challenges. Findings present an analytic strategy for constructing a practical model in qualitative research of contributing mechanisms to DMC and addressing issues of social justice in the United States.

The Policing of Youth on the U.S.–Mexico Border

The study of disproportionate minority contact (DMC) has encountered at least three obstacles: the lack of research on policing, the difficulty of expanding research beyond Blacks and Whites, and the absence of research focused on different regions of the country. The authors of this article seek to fill these three gaps by exploring the reasons why Hispanic juveniles have a greater number of arrests for delinquent and nondelinquent behavior than White youth. The geographic context for this study is the Southern New Mexico border with Mexico, which is one of the poorest regions in the United States. Using various sources of data, both qualitative and quantitative, the authors contribute to the theory of minority group threat to explain how law enforcement officers participate in reinforcing DMC despite a perception of juvenile justice leniency in minority majority communities. We devote special focus toward the policing of poor communities, school discipline, and internal divisions regarding punishment-oriented strategies.

Is disproportionate minority contact improving? An exploratory analysis of the arrest, confinement, and transfer stages in rural and urban settings

ABSTRACTThe extant literature has consistently recognized the existence of disproportionate minority contact (DMC); however, explanations for its existence have varied. The purpose of this study was to explore DMC reduction at the arrest, confinement, and transfer stages of the juvenile justice system in 10 rural and urban counties in a midwestern state from 2006 through 2011. Results indicated little to no success in DMC reduction at any of the stages in urban settings since 2006. There were also no geographical differences in DMC reduction across rural and urban settings. Research and policy implications acknowledging a need for incentives and substantive initiatives to encourage and guide states in their DMC reduction efforts are included.

Race, Ethnicity, and Structural Variations in Youth Risk of Arrest

Missing from the considerable body of literature on disproportionate minority contact is an examination of the factors that influence risk of juvenile arrest. Using the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1997, the author examines racial/ethnic disparities in youth arrest, net of self-reported delinquency. Drawing from research using a minority threat perspective, this study examines whether disparities are exacerbated by macro levels of the relative size of the minority population and minority economic inequality. The results indicate Black youth have a higher risk of arrest than White youth in all contextual climates, but this disparity is magnified in predominantly non-Black communities. Differences between Hispanic and White youths’ risk of arrest did not reach statistical significance or vary across communities. The findings failed to yield support for the threat perspective but strongly supported the benign neglect thesis. Implications for theory and future research are discussed.

A Qualitative Analysis of Police Interactions and Disproportionate Minority Contact

This study aims to uncover various aspects of police interactions that contribute to disproportionate minority contact with the juvenile justice system. In-depth interviews were conducted using a sample of 30 male juveniles residing in a correctional facility. The most consistent themes that arose included police allotting more chances to Whites than youth of color, repeated arrests by the same officer, police awareness of family reputations, and officers using unnecessary force against youth of color. Findings demonstrate that contact with the juvenile justice system is not only disproportionate but also distinct in its form depending on the race of the juvenile.

Disproportionate Minority Contact in a Latino Majority County: A Descriptive Study

This study describes the process of disproportionate minority contact (DMC) within Fresno County (California), a majority Latino county. Although Latinos are the largest minority group in America, the majority of DMC research has compared Blacks to Whites. This study adds more detail to the discussion by examining the distribution of all youth groups across several juvenile justice measures within Fresno County. Our findings support our speculation that even though Latinos are generally defined as a minority group nationally, DMC has a slight effect on juvenile justice processing given that Fresno County is a minority-majority county. Although our data are descriptive in nature, we conclude by offering some possible explanations for the absence of DMC among Latino youths in this county.

Limited Disproportionate Minority Contact Discourse may Explain Limited Progress in Reducing Minority Over-representation in the US Juvenile Justice System

This article provides a review of the development of the US federal government disproportionate minority contact (DMC) mandate for the juvenile justice system. Research assessing the reduction of disproportionate minority contact and demonstrating an overall lack of progress is examined. The connection between the lack of progress in reducing disproportionate minority contact and the lack of focus on the front end of the system is established. The impact on the juvenile justice system and, more importantly, on minority youth are discussed and recommendations in terms of expanding the discourse, policy and practice to more fully include police are made. Finally, the US experience and limitations are put into a global perspective, underscoring commonality across nations in addressing race, ethnic and age discrimination among police.

Why’s Everybody Always Pickin’ on me? A New Look at Police/Minority Contact

Presently there are two explanations for disproportionate minority/police contact: racism and a belief that minorities commit most crimes and there is a need to focus on those communities. This article examines a third possibility that focuses on policing as a social service and minority use of social services in our society. The research examines policing as a social service and compares minority use of other social services with their use of police services. The research also looks at pulling of police into neighborhoods by measuring calls-for-service in various communities; it examines police resource allocation which, as the research indicates, is significantly based on these calls-for-service; and compares minority use of police services with minority utilization of other social services. The research supports the premise that disproportionate minority contact by police is a social phenomenon that is similar to minority over-utilization of other social services.

Shifting Perceptions of Race and Incarceration as Adolescents Age: Addressing Disproportionate Minority Contact by Understanding How Social Environment Informs Racial Attitudes

African American youth disproportionately experience incarceration in the United States and a number of programs have been created to address disproportionate minority contact (DMC) with the juvenile justice system. Thus, we aim to understand the ways in which race and incarceration are conceptualized differently by younger and older youth. Within these age categories we explore how perceptions of incarceration and crime inform racial attitudes among African American adolescents. We also investigate how a program grounded in an operating framework that extols an achievement ideology and designed to decrease DMC among African American adolescent males shapes participants’ attitudes about race and incarceration and their perceived future trajectories Our findings suggest the older participants were less likely to embrace achievement ideology and more likely to be aware of the structural barriers related to race. Thus, a more culturally responsive, critically engaged intervention may be more appropriate for African American youth.

Disproportionate Juvenile Minority Confinement

Research regarding disproportionate minority contact (DMC) and the juvenile justice system has concentrated on the extent to which DMC exists instead of why it exists. There remains a dearth of discussion on the theoretical underpinning of the overrepresentation of minorities in the juvenile justice system. The current research addresses this theoretical gap by examining the relationship between the racial threat hypothesis and Black–White disparity in out-of-home placements in the juvenile justice system. State-level panel data were used in the comparison of juvenile arrests to placement data. The study yielded mixed support for the racial threat hypothesis, finding percentage Black to be significantly related to racial disparity in placement rates but the ratio of Black to White employment not significant. The results showing that crime-prone, urban areas exhibit higher rates of Black–White placement disproportionality indicate that some portion of the disproportionality stems from broader social inequalities.

Disproportionate Minority Contact in the Land of Enchantment: Juvenile Justice Disparities as a Reflection of White-Over-Color Ascendancy

This article provides an overview of disproportionate minority contact in the state of New Mexico by focusing on the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention's identification phase. Statewide Relative Rate Index data of 9 decision points in the juvenile justice system were used to explore patterns of disparity for 7 years (2002–2008). New Mexico is 1 of 4 states considered to have a proportion of racial and ethnic minorities that surpasses the non-Hispanic White majority. Resident identities have been shaped by more than 400 years of history with several countries, presenting an opportunity to explore critical race theory's tenet of White-over-color ascendancy. Similar to in other states, Blacks and Hispanics were overrepresented in the juvenile justice system. Native Americans encountered mixed levels of over- and underrepresentation, whereas Whites were underrepresented in all but 1 decision point. According to these data, the numerically smaller White population continues to benefit from both psychic and material advantage in the Land of Enchantment.

The Contingent Effect of Race in Juvenile Court Detention Decisions

Race and racial stereotypes have long been recognized as influencing the formal social control of youth. Recent analyses have moved beyond identifying disproportionate minority contact (DMC) and toward assessing the contingencies under which race has a lesser or greater impact on juvenile court outcomes. While often confounded, the racial threat and symbolic threat perspectives offer conceptually distinct explanations for DMC. The racial threat perspective proposes that racial disparities in sanctioning are at least partly the result of perceptions among Whites that the minority group threatens their economic and political hegemony. Alternatively, the symbolic threat perspective proposes that intergroup inequality fosters perceptions that minorities are a threat to middle class norms, values, and standards motivating Whites to discriminate. The current study employs hierarchical generalized linear modeling to discern the salience of these two perspectives to understanding racial bias in preadjudication detention. To do this, we merge county-level Census data with data on nearly a decade’s worth of delinquency cases in one Southeastern state. Our results offer limited support for the racial threat perspective but strongly support the symbolic threat perspective in indicating that the impact of race on detention is contingent upon interracial socioeconomic inequality in the community at large.

Alternatives to Detention for African American Adolescents with Substance Use and Co-occurring Disorders

Juvenile justice services, disproportionate minority contact, and alternatives to detention for African American adolescents with substance use and co-occurring disorders continue to be areas of concern for juvenile justice, substance abuse, and mental health administrators. Additionally, salient is the question regarding the purpose of the juvenile justice system. Whether its focus is “punishment or rehabilitation” affects outlook, services, approaches, and outcomes. This article examines disproportionate minority contact and alternatives to detention for African American adolescents with substance use and co-occurring disorders along with evidence-based and community-based alternatives to detention.