Disposal Of Land Research Articles

Making railway land productive: The commodification of public land in Kenyan and Indian cities

This paper contributes to the current debates on public land commodification and privatization in a Global South perspective by comparing the disposal of railway land in Kenya and India. Turning public land into profits through inventory, sale, concession, real estate capitalisation is a growing phenomenon at the global level. The literature on large-scale urban development projects and political economy accounts on public land commodification often mobilize the prism of “the land grab” in their analysis to highlight the consequences of a predatory private property supported by State governments, leading to various forms of dispossession. In contrast to these works, we explore over a long period of time the professional cultures, the internal restructuring and the relations to central administrations of two public operators who are pushed to valorize their urban land and real estate properties. This vantage point from the inside of the organizations offers a specific account of the changing trajectories of land ownership, the generation of urban land value and the changing faces of public enterprises in an era of neoliberal reforms in cities of the Global South. It allows us to open a more complex and varied process of land commodification than it would appear from examples of the urban land grab debate.

Development of the Concept of Rational Use of Land on the Example of the Penza Region

The article is devoted to the study of the rational use of land, which is exacerbated in connection with the conditions of the diversity of forms of ownership and management on land. Many lands are not used for their intended purpose and the disposal of land from agricultural circulation, as well as due to erosion, waterlogging and other factors, leads to a decrease in the level of land provision of the population. In recent years, the amount of organic and mineral fertilizers introduced into the soil has decreased. Improving the condition of land and increasing the efficiency of their use is a large complex task that requires significant investment, both from the state and from specific land users. The research hypothesis - land management processes are also developing from the classical approach, focused on forest belts, tin ravines, improvement of crop rotation and similar events, modern enterprises partially depart in two directions - either using business planning or using the postulates of strategic management. The authors developed recommendations to improve the efficiency of agricultural land use in the Penza region.

Revisiting the Concept of the Property State: Private Landowners and Suburban Development in Hong Kong

Abstract Under the prevailing land‐leasehold system, the Hong Kong government is thought to be the dominant supplier of land for housing development and for economic transformation. These characteristics make Hong Kong a “property state,” to use a concept developed by Anne Haila. However, the protection of private property rights has long been a core value in the city. As a result, private developers and investors have endeavored to build up their own land banks, enabling private‐profit‐oriented entities to dominate the land supply market for housing development. This article supplements previous works on land monopoly in Hong Kong. While previous works focused mainly on the role of the property lobby in the disposal of new land by the government, this article offers another perspective on land monopoly, based on the case of underutilized land resources in the New Territories of Hong Kong. By focusing on growth coalitions and the projects that they introduce to boost growth and enhance land values, this article provides insight into the political economy of urban development in Hong Kong. In light of the soaring property prices in the city, the Hong Kong government planned to open up the suburbs to affordable housing; yet, the government’s initiative has been hindered by the strong opposition of the owners of suburban land (including brownfield sites and abandoned agricultural land). In this article, we argue that these landowners with vested land interests are anti‐growth coalitions rather than pro‐growth coalitions. We demonstrate how the city’s growth machine is subverted by the hoarding of land in the suburbs by a small group of people.

ЗЕМЕЛЬНІ ВІДНОСИНИ ЯК ОБ’ЄКТ КРИМІНАЛЬНО-ПРАВОВОЇ ОХОРОНИ В УКРАЇНІ

The article is devoted to a comprehensive study of land relations as an object of criminal law protection and prevention of criminal offenses in the field of land relations. The author formulated the concept of «land relations», and the study of current legislation, scientific sources provided an opportunity to reveal the essence and content of land relations, to explore the current state of public administration. Land legal relations are public relations that exist in connection with the exercise of the rights and legitimate interests of landowners and land users, their responsibilities; activities of jurisdictional bodies and other entities regarding the possession, use and disposal of land, its rational use, reproduction and protection. Analysis of current regulations, scientific sources made it possible to reveal the essence and content of land relations, to explore the current state of public administration. Land relations are a circle of homogeneous social relations: the subjects of which may be individuals, legal entities, public authorities and local governments, foreign states, international organizations, public associations and organizations – bearers of subjective legal rights and responsibilities; the common object of which is land, and the direct objects may be land, land as a natural resource, including soils, information about land; their content is the relationship of land ownership and land use, their rational use, reproduction and protection, the activities of public administration, in accordance with the specifics of land categories, features of common and direct objects. Based on modern legal understanding, the principles of criminal law protection of one of the fundamental elements of the environment – land resources as an object of the environment, legal relations of land ownership and agricultural activities. The concept of criminal-legal protection of land resources of Ukraine is developed, which is based on the results of a comprehensive study of the stated issues, taking into account modern views and recent achievements of legal doctrine, which includes the legislator, and man as an integral part of the unified system of the latter, and law enforcement – on the use of regulations not only of criminal law, but also a set of departmental legal acts in the process of criminal law protection of land resources of Ukraine.

Identification and restoration of unused agricultural land based on planned land inventory

The article considers the procedure for identification of unused agricultural land for its involvement in economic turnover. The object of study is the Yaroslavl and Smolensk regions of the Russian Federation, where the share of unused agricultural land is from 12 to 50%. This identification is based on the methods of planned land inventory, the main purpose of which is to assess the reasons for land disposal, the cultural and technical conditions of land and preparation of recommendations for introduction of lands into agricultural circulation. This work includes the proposals to establish the order of involvement of land plots into economic turnover.

ВОПРОСЫ СОВЕРШЕНСТВОВАНИЯ ОБОРОТА ЗЕМЕЛЬНЫХ УЧАСТКОВ ИЗ СОСТАВА ЗЕМЕЛЬ СЕЛЬСКОХОЗЯЙСТВЕННОГО НАЗНАЧЕНИЯ

One of the factors hindering the further development of agricultural enterprises of various legal forms is the imperfection of land legislation. Land plots that are in state or municipal ownership, when leased or owned through auctions, are not always given to peasant (farmer) households or agricultural enterprises that need them for production. This is due to the high transaction costs, which are caused by the need to form, register for cadastral registration and registration of rights to land, as well as the costs of holding auctions to provide them. Moreover, as a result of tenders at such auctions, rental payments are often overstated due to unfair competition from participants who do not carry out agricultural activities. Relations between agricultural producers and state and municipal executive authorities on the ownership, use and disposal of land from the category of agricultural land, including state or municipal property, are regulated by the Federal Law “On the Turnover of Agricultural Land”. A number of its provisions do not facilitate the transfer of agricultural land to effective owners - agricultural producers. On the other hand, the low efficiency of agricultural production, due to objective and subjective reasons, does not allow to set the rent at a level of interest to owners of land shares. It is necessary at the level of the ministries of land and property relations of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation to develop Regulations on holding auctions for the sale of agricultural land in ownership or lease rights on them, which should reflect the criteria for participants in such auctions. The lease payment for lands in shared ownership shall be at least 3% of the cash proceeds from 1 ha.

Completion of Land Reform in Ukraine: Legal Issues

The article examines the purpose and criteria for completing land reform in Ukraine. Land reform in Ukraine as a system of land reform legislation in the country, along with positive results, led to the onset of a number of negative consequences, in particular, the excessive bureaucratization of land relations, land corruption, agroholdings agriculture, degradation of agricultural land. Therefore, without addressing the negative consequences of the land reform they will be after the cancellation of the land moratorium and the negative impact on the legal regulation of the land market. Therefore, the introduction of market circulation of agricultural land cannot be considered a criterion of completion of land reform in Ukraine. In fact, besides the cancellation of the land moratorium, which blocks the implementation of the land owners of such proprietary rights as the disposing of it to ensure the full potential of the right of private ownership of land should be improved and legal environment in which there will be implementation of the owners of his powers. To do this, it seems appropriate to continue to reform the land legislation, which would ensure the elimination of such disadvantages by overcoming derzhkomzviazku in the development of land legislation, deregulation of the legal regulation of land relations, the decentralization of power in the field of land resources management and strengthen the legal protection of soil fertility. The results of this land reform legislation needs to be fixed for the new codification. So domestic experience in the implementation of land reform and the General framework of land reform legislation give rise to the conclusion that its purpose and, therefore, the criterion to end is not only the introduction of agricultural land market and creation of favorable for both land owners and society legal environment of implementing powers in respect of possession, use and disposal of land. In our opinion, this understanding of the completion of the land reform in Ukraine and will symbolize the completion of the transition from administrative-planned methods of regulation of land relations on the principle of ”top – down”, which is dominated by the powers of bodies of state power, inherent in the constitutional state system of legal regulation of land relations, which is based on the priority of the rights and legitimate interests of individuals, the territorial communities and society, which must provide the state.

АНАЛІЗ ЕФЕКТИВНОСТІ ВИКОРИСТАННЯ ЗЕМЕЛЬНИХ РЕСУРСІВ УКРАЇНИ

The article discusses issues related to the need to improve the use of land resources of Ukraine. Ukraine has a huge natural resource potential. The land fund of Ukraine is 5.7% of the territory of Europe. What distinguishes Ukraine from Western European countries is that the proportion of agricultural land is high, especially arable land. In addition, they are distinguished by the quality of the land, as the proportion of black soil is high. The structure of land resources and the dynamics of changes in them are considered. Ukraine is sufficiently provided with arable land, but the amount of such land per capita is not correlated with the level of food supply of the population, since the latter figure depends not only on the land area and land fertility, but also on the level of agricultural culture, crop structure, and the country’s economy, development of the processing industry, social conditions and standard of living.Ukraine has a high level of agricultural development, but the ratio in different natural areas is unequal. In the mixed forest zone, agricultural development is less than in the steppe and forest-steppe zones. An objective law of agricultural development in leading countries is the growth in the number of large agricultural enterprises and agroholdings, since agriculture requires significant investments and high economic efficiency of production is achieved by attracting large areas of land. resources. Among European countries, Ukraine ranks second in terms of availability of agricultural land. After studying the practice of agricultural land use in Ukraine, it can be noted that the farms that are under the control of agroholdings (one third of agricultural areas) and enterprises that operate on conditions of self-financing are most different. Problems in land management have been analyzed. Considered foreign experience in the use of land resources. Ukraine has not yet created an information base for effective land management. This is due to the lack of money, technical means, organizational and methodological provisions have not been worked out, the creation of a national data bank on the state of land, land registration activities, and land monitoring is inhibited. There are proposals for improving land use. In the structure of land resources and land use, there are now significant disproportions, the increase of which can threaten the environment and, consequently, the human living environment and, equally important, economic efficiency, i.e. sustainable development of the national economy. The situation with the ownership, use and disposal of land remains difficult, it requires urgent improvement. The most acute problems are the incompleteness of the processes of reforming economic and legal property relations, the imperfection of the system of state administration in the sphere of land use and protection.

Моногорода и освоение сырьевых ресурсов на стадии высокой степени зрелости ресурсной базы

The paper considers the problems of the development of monotowns related to the development of mineral resources. The author shows that the solution of the problems of these cities is possible only if the system of state regulation of the development of mineral resources is changed at the stage of high maturity of the resource base. At the same time, the paper focuses on the development of the so-called "resource monotowns". The author analyzes the relationship between the stages of development and extraction of natural resources within the framework of the research. The important factor is the role of so-called "system specificity" of assets that form the basis for the formation and functioning of the mono-industry and the infrastructure of the settlement. Another important factor is the need for decentralization of powers in granting, taxing, and regulating the development of natural resources, their redistribution from the Federation to regional authorities and municipalities (including monotowns). The latter implies the formation of a system of subsoil use, based on complicity, co-management of the natural resource potential. In this case, in the opinion of the author and the proposed recommendations have constitutional grounds, as Art. 72 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation refers to "joint jurisdiction of the Russian Federation and the subjects of the Federation of issues of ownership, use and disposal of land, mineral wealth, water and other natural resources". The proposed recommendations and practical interpretations for Art. 72 include the need to expand the range of subjects of joint jurisdiction with mandatory inclusion in their number of municipalities (including monotowns), as well as citizens. This involves creating a mechanism for interaction between all these actors in the processes of preparing, discussing and implementing decisions in the sphere of the use of natural resources.

Sosio-legal analysis of forest cleaning process onMarind travel district Merauke

The socio-legal analysis the process of transferring customary forest into plantation land on the marind tribe. This study aims to (1) analyze indigenous and plantation forests in the literature of legislation - (2) to describe the conservation of land function (3) to describe the Marind / Malind indigenous peoples (4) to analyze the process of natural transition (land/forest) marind. The research method used is the method of socio-legal research, which is a method of research approaching a problem through a merger between normative analysis with non-legal science approach given the law. That is by conducting studies and analysis related to forest clearance. Data collection is done by collecting primary legal materials in the form of laws and regulations and constitutional court decisions and also collecting secondary legal materials in the form of legal opinions, doctrines or theories derived from legal literature, research results, scientific articles, and related websites with research, and interviews that are then used to provide an explanation of the primary legal material. The conclusion of this research is (1) that the definition of forest in Law No. 18 of 2013 about prevention and Restriction of Forest Destruction according to the forest in the perspective of the Marind because it describes the forest as a unity of ecosystem that formed naturally and not formed because set by the government. (2) Land transition process by Marind has to go through several customary ritual processes conducted by the Marind tribe then bring up to some statement from the indigenous peoples which are called by “Letter of Release of Adat.” That letter of release than becoming evidence of land transfers from indigenous peoples to another tribe legal entity for then made for one of the requirement to manage and manufacture the Land Certificate. (3) the process of disposal of land using customary rituals and get approval from various parties Masyarakat we can conclude that the step is a step of responsibility towards future generations, so then there will be no problems and disputes in the future either to investors/buyers of land.

Peri-urban land transactions: the new geographies and cultures of peri-urban land in eThekwini Municipality

Rapid urbanisation has led to a profound, if under examined, shift in the eThekwini Municipality. In some parts of the municipality’s peri-urban areas, a novel trend of new imposing stylish homes can be seen along some of the roads. While policy and academic interest in peri-urban areas has been driven by concern for the urban poor, we see quite the opposite in some areas wherein wealthier residents are acquiring land in peri-urban areas in an unprecedented fashion. Yet, as many scholars have noted, the contentious and sensitive processes of land acquisition in South African cities are driven by complex racial and socio-economic histories of differentiated access. In some parts of eThekwini, acquisition, ownership, and disposal of land is shaped by such histories and the complex duality of traditional and western systems of land governance. In this paper we examine this recent outward shift of predominantly black middle class residents who ‘purchase’ land in peri-urban areas. Not much is known about these new land transactions. Who are these residents? Why here, why now? Do these transactions constitute a veritable market and if so who are the key players in it? How do actors negotiate the complex duality of traditional and municipal systems of land management? How do we think analytically about these new processes? Using insights from assemblage literature, we place these trends firmly in the context of the meta-arrangements of apartheid and white supremacist culture that continue to shape the lived experience of black people in South Africa.

Інститут обмежених речових прав в наукових працях Київського юридичного товариства (друга половина ХІХ ст.)

The article highlights the contribution of scientists of the Kyiv Law Society to solving the problems of licit land tenure in the second half of the nineteenth century, which was an example of the Institutution of limited real rights, which is also called the right to other people's things. In the historical context, the basic principles of the activity of the rents law in the Ukrainian lands are reflected, where it was very popular since the fifteenth century and until the end of the nineteenth century, and it was shown that the rents land tenure was for a long time the right to inherit possession and disposal of land belonging to the private owner, for which the latter received an annual unchanging payment – rents. The main stages of the emergence and development of the rents legal relations from the time of the Lithuanian-Ruskoi state and up to the last decades of the existence of the Russian Empire have been considered. It is shown how in the various historical periods at the legislative level, the actual legal relations were maintained in the most important normative legal acts that acted on the territory of modern Ukraine. The main changes in this issue after 1840 are shown, when on the Ukrainian lands the Lithuanian statute was abolished and the Code of Laws of the Russian Empire was introduced, which banned the rents legal relationship. That also led to a number of problems, because Rents land tenure after 1840 was no longer legal regulation. It was traced as members of the Kyiv Law Society raised this issue and initiated its decision at the legislative level. The analysis of scientific works of the members of the Kyiv Law Society has been carried out, which showed that the development of the economy in the conditions of capitalist relations in the second half of the nineteenth century led to the fact that the existing legal relations became unfavorable for landowners. Therefore, they tried to resolve the problem for several decades by their efforts in a situation that required the implementation of a large-scale reform, transferring the existing legal relations to the term lease. The contribution of the members of the KLS to the implementation of the actual reform, in particular, in the work on the "Regulations on the land structure of village perpetual rents in the provinces of West and Biloruskykh" in 1886, which finally abolished the rents legal relations and began the transformation of civil legal relations between large landowners and former rents owners who lived on the lands of the latter, in the conditions of the new socio-economic realities of the country.

Improvement of the competitive organizational-economic model of disposal of agricultural land in Ukraine

Improvement of the competitive organizational-economic model of disposal of agricultural land in Ukraine

EVOLUTION OF PEASANT LAND TENURE DURING THE UKRAINIAN REVOLUTION OF 1917–1921

The subject of the study is the evolution of peasant land tenure during the period of the Ukrainian Revolution of 1917-1921. The contribution supports the assumption that the Ukrainian revolution of 1917-1921 was a peasant one by its character. The principal agent of Ukrainian history of that period was the peasantry. Peasant revolutionary activity dramatically affected the state of land tenure in Ukraine. It clearly underwent radical changes. The essence of these transformations was the elimination of landlordism and the expansion of the peasant land tenure. The main subject of land relations in Ukraine during the Ukrainian Revolution of 1917-1921 was a peasant landowner. The methodological basis of the study was the concept of the “Great Peasant Revolution”, put forward in the scientific works of V. Danilov, T. Shanin. Its main statements were further developed in the latest developments of N. Kovalev, I. Farenii, S. Kornovenko, and other scholars. Peasant revolution of the early twentieth century laid the foundation of all the revolutionary transformations deploying in Ukraine in the first decades of the twentieth century. A socio-cultural approach is the core methodological benchmark of our study. One of the features of the socio-cultural paradigm is a certain universalism, which makes it possible to study cultural, political, economic, and other elements as a whole, as well as consider society as a unity of culture and sociality. Considering these basic principles, the peasantry at the beginning of the twentieth century appears as a complicated socio-cultural phenomenon where a well-established routine, the land, the work on it, peasants are closely interconnected. The peasantry was the conservative basis of civilization, a specific form of culture, which reminded statehood by the way of socio-cultural organization. Peasant economy was a socio-cultural phenomenon, object and subject of agrarian policy, it occupied an important place in the social division of labour as a peculiar microscope; and most importantly it was the structural component of the Ukrainian revolutionary society of that time. The purpose of the paper is to investigate the evolution of peasant land tenure during the period of the Ukrainian Revolution of 1917-1921. The basis of the analysis is the agrarian policy adopted by Bolsheviks, N. Makhno, P. Wrangel. The study of these examples clarifies the evolution of peasant land tenure in the Ukrainian village during the period of the Ukrainian Revolution of 1917-1921. As a result of the study, the following conclusions were substantiated. A deliberate policy of liquidation of large land tenure in Ukraine in 1917-1918 by the Soviet authorities was not carried out. Attempts for its implementation took place in Ukraine only in 1919 and were not successful in the end. The Makhnovists were much more effective in their endeavours. Firstly, they did not provoke resistance from peasants of various wealth; secondly, their policy was introduced before the Bolsheviks came to power; and thirdly, their policy was legalized by the relevant decisions of the congresses. P. Wrangel conducted a policy of liquidation of large land tenure in Ukraine in 1920. In its essence, it was similar to the one of Soviet power and Makhno. At the same time, it varied qualitatively from the Soviet one: 1) it had a more thoughtful, systematic, purposeful character; 2) the Government of the South of Russia managed to move away from declarations and eliminated large land tenure in practice; 3) the future of statehood, for which P. Wrangel fought, was clearly linked with the peasantry; 4) he did not identify private ownership of land with large land tenure. The latter was understood as a component of the institution of private land ownership. P. Wrangel believed that possession, use, and disposal of land were the essence of the peasants’ aspirations for land ownership. Therefore, only large land tenure suffered the liquidation.

From state restructuring to urban restructuring: The intermediation of public landownership in urban development projects in France

Many urban development projects (UDPs) in Europe take place on lands belonging to public bodies and administrations, and publicly owned firms. Yet, the literature has failed to explain why a substantial proportion of the remaking of European cities is shaped on public properties, and with what outcomes. My underlying hypothesis is that the redevelopment of such properties depends primarily on the restructuring of the state. Firstly, this paper provides evidence of the relationships between three dynamics of state restructuring and the disposal of public land and real estate properties owned by one sector of the French state, that is, the railways. Secondly, the paper focuses on two UDPs of railway sites, respectively located in Paris and Nantes, in order to disclose the specificity of the redevelopment process associated with public railway properties, due to the socio-legal infrastructure of railway land disposal stemming from these dynamics. The paper demonstrates that (i) state restructuring impels various levels and organisations of the state to redevelop public land and real estate properties; and (ii) the effects of state restructuring can be explained only by analysing the mediating role of the socio-legal infrastructure of these properties, which frames the processes and outcomes of the redevelopment projects. In so doing, the paper offers a specific account of the explanatory factors, processes and outcomes of the relationship between state restructuring and a significant proportion of the restructuring of urban areas in Europe.

Information and Analytical Work of the Prosecutor in the Exercise of Public Prosecutor's Supervision over Compliance with the Law on Disposal of Land

This article covers the organization and implementation of the information and analytical work by the prosecuting authorities within public prosecutor's supervision over the compliance with the law on disposal of land. The concept of public prosecutor's supervision is developed in general, but also in relation to the sphere of legal relations relating to land. For the first time in public prosecutor's supervision knowledge the article highlights five main groups of sources for the Prosecutor General to obtain information on violations of the law in the disposal of land, the use of which will increase the efficiency of supervisory activities. The author proposes to understand 'proper information and analytical work' as the collection, accounting, accumulation and analysis of the information on the state of the law in this sphere of relations in order to define the priorities of supervision, measures to improve its effectiveness, formation plans, prepare and conduct inspections by the prosecutors and the application of appropriate measures in response to violations.

South Sudan and the East African Community: Common Market, Citizenship, and Political Federation

This article analyses South Sudan's political and economic challenges as it seeks to become member of the East African Community (EAC). The first section presents a brief profile of South Sudan, its development challenges, the land tenure system and legal framework governing access to and disposal of land. The second section presents an exposition on the challenges facing the EAC as it seeks to build a monetary union and a political federation. The article critically examines the EAC protocol regarding the monetary union, political federation, the land tenure system in East Africa and its plan for a common citizenship. It reviews and analyses EAC policies such as the elimination of trade barriers like tariff, non-tariff and other technical barriers, harmonisation of labour policies, programmes, legislation, and social services throughout members' states. The article concludes that the biggest challenge facing the EAC is how to protect social democracy, while balancing rights with social justice, market fundamentalism with social equity and offers preliminary recommendations.

ВЛАДНІ ПОВНОВАЖЕННЯ ОРГАНІВ МІСЦЕВОГО САМОВРЯДУВАННЯ ЯК СУБ’ЄКТІВ ЗЕМЕЛЬНИХ ПРАВОВІДНОСИН У СТОЛИЦІ УКРАЇНИ – МІСТІ-ГЕРОЇ КИЄВІ

The problems of the study are conditioned by the need to combine in Kyiv among the powers of bodies whose competence includes the disposal of land within the city, taking into account in the process of such disposal the need for the city to perform the functions of capital and at the same time prevent narrowing of land rights. The capital of Ukraine - the city of Kyiv, is a special administrative-territorial unit within which local governments perform not only the powers provided by the Law of Ukraine "On Local Self-Government in Ukraine", but also the Law of Ukraine "On the capital of Ukraine - the hero city of Kyiv". state executive power is exercised by the executive body of the Kyiv City Council - the Kyiv City State Administration, and has double subordination. The article aims to investigate the impact of the dual legal regime of the city as the capital of the state and as the territory of the city community on the implementation of land powers of local governments. Local governments on behalf of and in the interests of territorial communities under current law, endowed with the competence to transfer objects of communal property for permanent or temporary use to legal entities and individuals, rent them, sell and buy, use as collateral, resolve their alienation, to determine in agreements and contracts the conditions of use and financing of objects that are privatized and transferred for use and lease. Land powers of local governments in the city - the heroes of Kiev provide a combination of powers of owner and manager, so the classic model of the owner, who at his discretion disposes of property, is affected by the administrative and legal status of such bodies, which causes action against such property only within, on the basis and in the manner prescribed by the Constitution and laws of Ukraine.

South Sudan and the East African Community: Common Market, Citizenship, and Political Federation

ABSTRACTThis article analyses South Sudan's political and economic challenges as it seeks to become a member of the East African Community (EAC). The first section presents a brief profile of South Sudan, its development challenges, the land tenure system and legal framework governing access to and disposal of land. The second section presents an exposition on the challenges facing the EAC as it seeks to build a monetary union and a political federation. The article critically examines the EAC protocol regarding the monetary union, political federation, the land tenure system in East Africa and its plan for a common citizenship. It reviews and analyses EAC policies such as the elimination of trade barriers such as tariff, non-tariff and other technical barriers, harmonisation of labour policies, programmes, legislation, and social services throughout members’ states. The article concludes that the biggest challenge facing the EAC is how

RESERCH OF OFFICE BUILDINGS IN THE MARUNOUCHI DISTRICT IN CONSIDERATION OF THE RELATION BETWEEN CONSTRUCTION AND PROFITABILITY

This research is to reexamine the business district development and the office buildings in consideration of the aspect on the developer side in modern period. This paper is focused on the relation between the office construction and its profitability. The Marunouchi business district where the Mitsubishi financial clique initiated development is caught up as a case. The object of this research is all office buildings that the Mitsubishi joint-stock company built and owned in the Marunouchi district where the Mitsubishi financial clique once partially owned from the disposal of land of 1890 to the liquidation of the Mitsubishi financial clique in 1946.