Dispersed Systems Research Articles

Dynamics of two bubbles colliding at high Reynolds numbers in water: Bubble rebound behavior study

AbstractThe collision between bubbles is essential to gas–liquid dispersion systems. When bubbles encounter each other, they may either rebound or coalesce. Yet, little is known about the rebound dynamics immediately after two bubbles collide. This work investigates such collision dynamics of two bubbles at high Reynolds numbers in water through experiment and simulation. The moving velocity, deformation, contact time during collision and restitution coefficient of bubbles are analyzed. Simulations reproduced quantitatively the bubble rebound behavior, revealing the evolution of various energies involved in collision. Simulation results show that over 70% of the system's initial mechanical energy (SME) could be converted into bubble surface energy (BSE) during the approach. In turn, the excess BSE is converted back into SME driving bubbles to rebound with significant dissipation. A mass‐spring‐damper model is developed, which describes the dynamic of bubble rebound well. This contribution enhances the understanding of bubble interactions in multiphase flow.

Features of electrolyte coagulation of modified polyamide resin and its effect on the properties of paper and cardboard

The article is devoted to the study of the features of coagulation of a modified polyamide resin for paper and cardboard in the presence of aluminum polyoxychloride. It has been established that the resin under study, the component composition of which is represented by modified polyaminoamides, free resin acid, sodium resinates and maleopimarate, is resistant to water hardness salts, however, the sodium resinates present in its composition are subject to hydrolysis. The process of coagulation of the modified polyamide resin under the influence of aluminum polyoxychloride is multi-stage and ends with the complete deposition of adhesive particles at a system pH of 7.05, which corresponds to an electrolyte consumption of 0.051 g Al2O3/g of resin. The composition of the adhesive deposit formed under such conditions is as follows: aluminum-resin complexes (aluminum resinates and products of the interaction of aluminum ions with modified polyamino- amides) – 88.50 % wt.; free resin acids – 11.47 % wt. Further introduction of the electrolyte into the dispersed system leads to the protonation of the amino groups of modified polyaminoamides and aluminum-resin complexes, which provides with a positive charge. Due to its composition and the ongoing coagulation processes, the modified polyamide resin has a waterrepellent and strengthening effect on paper pulps in a wide pH range (5.8–7.5). Sequential introduction of resin into waste paper suspensions in an amount of 0.25 % of absolutely dry fiber and aluminum polyoxychloride until the paper pulps are achieved makes it possible to improve the hydrophobic and physical-mechanical properties of paper by 70.2–87.2 and 19.5–23.2 %, respectively.

Analysis of the Heat Transfer Properties of a Dispersion System With Rice Grain Particles

Analysis of the Heat Transfer Properties of a Dispersion System With Rice Grain Particles

Photophysics of Hydrophobic Corroles in the Aqueous Micellar Media and in the Presence of Graphene Oxide and Bioanalytes.

Here two A2B type corrole has been synthesized and solubilized in water via pluronic micelle system by avoiding the utmost mandatory multistep non-environment friendly strategies for bringing hydrophobic non-ionic corroles in aqueous medium. Both the corroles were extremely insoluble in water as no absorption spectra of corrole was available in water. However, corrole 2 in the aqueous solution of F127 exhibit characteristic Soret and Q bands due to efficient solubilization of corrole in F127, the micelles formed by block copolymer act as a "cargo hold" for the corrole molecules. Intense emission spectra were observed for both the corroles in the aqueous solution of F127. We further observed that fluorescence properties of corrole-F127 micelle systems are quenched in presence of graphene oxide (GO) without change in the wavelength or shape of the emission band. The possibility of a dynamic quenching is probed more quantitatively by recording the emission decay profiles of corrole-F127-GO system. This quenching of fluorescence intensity of graphene oxide dispersed corrole-F127 micellar system was partially re-established in the presence of bioanalytes such as dopamine, ascorbic acid. Therefore, the present work has a future potential application for analyzing the interaction with different bioanalytes in biological systems using corrole-GO composite.

Exploring the Optical Properties of Carotenoid-Based Nanoparticles: The Role of Terminal Groups.

Carotenoids are increasingly used as naturally occurring food colorants. For application as beverage colorants, fat-soluble carotenoids are formulated into dispersion systems via nanoparticle (NP) formation. In recent years, the antioxidant properties of carotenoids have gained immense recognition for their preventive health benefits, thereby highlighting further interest in their development as functional food ingredients. Although functional carotenoids in dispersion-based formulations are desirable, knowledge regarding the structural and optical properties of NPs of carotenoids other than those of β-carotene, and methods to efficiently produce and compare NPs of various carotenoids, remain scarce. In this study, NPs of β-carotene, lycopene, astaxanthin, and lutein were prepared using a simple reprecipitation method, with a focus on understanding the variations in the molecular self-assembly influenced by the quality of solvent used during reprecipitation. This study presents the novel finding that the terminal groups of carotenoids significantly affect the intermolecular interactions, thereby altering the structural and optical properties of the resulting NPs. Our findings are expected to contribute to the development of new technologies for controlling the color of carotenoids based on the crystal structure of the NPs.

American health system problems and potential solutions

Abstract. The United States healthcare system indicates a paradox. It becomes famous for advances while plagues for significant challenges. This paper will emphasize the situation of the American health system, focus on its complexity and find out the potential factors. The burden stands out as a prominent characteristic of the US healthcare system. Despite its wealth, the US spends a disproportionate amount of its GDP on healthcare, surpassing other nations significantly. This financial strain affects individuals, families, insurers, healthcare facilities, and government budgets. The system lacks universal coverage and operates as a mixed system, combining publicly financed programs like Medicare and Medicaid with privately financed market coverage. One of the main challenges is the absence of price controls, leading to inflated healthcare costs compared to other countries. The US relies on individual insurers to negotiate prices, increasing prescription medication and medical services expenses. This model incentivizes innovation but burdens American consumers with subsidizing healthcare costs globally. The complexity and much broader structural problems intertwine, involving dispersive payment systems, for-profit markets and ultimately expensive management costs. All these factors push the price of American health soring, even persistent increasing through decades. Thus, this paper will have potential solutions by price negotiation and regulation, improving price transparency and easing price-setting. In addition, this paper will also analyze the effects of stakeholders due to these solutions. Generally, solving the issues of the US healthcare system requires a nuanced understanding of its intricacies and a concerted effort to promote affordability, accessibility, and quality of care for all Americans.

Multiscale understanding of structural effect on explosive dispersal of granular media

Explosive dispersal of granular media widely occurs in nature across various length scales, enabling engineering applications ranging from commercial or military explosive systems to the loss prevention industry. However, the correlation between the explosive dispersal behaviour and the structure of dispersal system is far from completely understood, thereby compromising the prediction of the explosive dispersal outcome resulting from a specific dispersal system. Here, we investigate the dispersal behaviours of densely packed particle rings driven by the enclosed pressurized gases using coarse-grained computational fluid dynamics–discrete parcel method. Distinct dispersal modes emerge from the dispersal systems with vastly varying sets of the macro- and micro-scale structural parameters in terms of the dispersal completeness and the spatial uniformity of the dispersed mass. Further investigation reveals the variation in the dispersal modes arises from the collective effects of multiscale gas–particle coupling relationships. Specifically, the macroscale coupling dictates the cyclic momentum/energy transfer between gases and particle ring as an entirety. The mesoscale coupling relates to the inter-pore gas filtration through the thickness of the particle ring, leading to the mass/energy reduction of the explosive source. The microscale coupling involves the individual particle dynamics influenced by the local flow parameters. A persistent macroscale coupling results in an incomplete dispersal which takes the form of an aggregated annular band, whereas the meso- and micro-scale couplings alter the macroscale coupling to a different extent. By incorporating the effects of the variety of structural parameters on the multiscale gas–particle coupling relationships, a non-dimensional parameter referred to as the modified mass ratio is constructed, which shows an explicit correlation with the dispersal mode. We proceed to establish a dispersal ring model in the continuum frame which accounts for the macro and meso-scale coupling effects. This model proves to be capable of successfully predicting the ideal and validated failed dispersal modes.

Design of enzyme immobilized zwitterionic copolymer nanogels and its size effect on electrochemical reaction

For enzyme-based electrochemical devices, an improvement in electron transfer between the enzyme and electrode is important. Thus, we developed a nano-scaled hydrogel that includes an electron mediator and enzyme to realize nano-sized effects that enhance the functions. Three different chain lengths (short, medium, and long) of copolymers composed of 2-methacryloyloxyethyl phosphorylcholine (MPC) and methacrylic acid N-hydroxysuccinimide ester (MNHS; poly(MPC-co-MNHS), PMS) were synthesized via reversible addition-fragmentation chain transfer (RAFT) polymerization. The PMS nanogels can bind to the amino ferrocene (AFc) of the electron mediator and glucose oxidase (GOD) as a catalyst. The mono-dispersive PMS nanogels approximately 200–250 nm in size bound with AFc were prepared with different polymer chain lengths and amounts of AFc (PMMFcX_Y%, X= ‘degree of polymerization, 50, 75, 100’ and Y= ‘AFc feeding ratio against the amount of NHS group in the polymer chain, 50 %, 100 %’). The size of PMMFcX_Y% could be controlled by changing degree of polymerization or AFc feeding ratio. After the modification of GOD to PMMFcX_Y%, their size increased slightly from the original size (ca. 200–250 nm) to approximately 250–300 nm. The catalytic activity of nanogel in dispersed system was higher than that of microgel, indicating that nanogels could improve glucose transport in hydrogel layer. Compared to the catalytic reaction of the PMMFc 75_50 %-GOD nanogel-modified electrodes with that of microgel modified electrode, the current response was improved by decreasing the nanogel size, as evaluated by electrochemical measurements. These results revealed that the smaller nanogels could improve both glucose transport and electron transfer via mediator by smaller size, resulting higher efficiency of enzyme immobilized electrode.

A robust floating oxygen-doped graphitic carbon nitride sheet for efficient photocatalytic CO2 conversion

Photocatalytic CO2 reduction offers a promising approach for converting CO2 into valuable chemicals. However, typical conversion systems suffer from inefficient CO2 mass transfer and complex recycling processes. In this study, we developed a floating sheet as a robust photocatalytic CO2 conversion system by integrating graphitic carbon nitride (CN) nanosheets onto polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) fiber membrane, followed by oxygen (O) doping into the CN (CN-O) via oxygen-plasma treatment. The floatable CN-O/PTFE sheet exhibits slight wettability in water under 0.25 MPa of CO2 pressure in our reactor system, facilitating the delivery of dissolved CO2 to the CN-O photocatalyst surface. O-doping enhances the visible light absorption and improves the separation and transport efficiency of photogenerated electrons and holes due to O-doping-induced states in CN. Consequently, the floating CN-O/PTFE system achieves an exceptional photocatalytic CO2 conversion rate of 102.3 μmol g-1h-1, approximately 4.8 times higher than a conventional CN-powder dispersion system in water. Moreover, the sheet demonstrates excellent cycling durability, with no significant exfoliation of the catalytic layer or reduction in CO2 photoreduction activity after 20 consecutive cycles. This study presents a novel approach to designing photocatalytic systems for efficient CO2 conversion.

On the spectral stability of periodic waves of the dispersive systems of modified KdV equations

This paper concerns the stability of periodic traveling waves of cnoidal type for the nonlinear dispersive systems. The main objective of the paper is to study their stability with respect to co-periodic perturbations.

Impact of fly-ash (silica) on amorphous phase formation ain NaNO3-Sr(NO3)2 composite solid electrolytes

In the current research, various weight percentages of flyash were incorporated into a mixed system of 85.32% NaNO3 and 14.68% Sr(NO3)2. The system was analyzed using the studies of conductivity, dielectric and electric modulus. An increase in DC conductivity was observed with the addition of flyash, peaking at 10% by weight. Beyond this concentration, the conductivity began to decrease. This increase in conductivity is attributed to the formation of an amorphous phase within the mixed sytem. XRD, FTIR, SEM, and DSC analyses of the flyash dispersed systems indicated the formation of an amorphous phase. The amorphous phase may be due to the surface interaction between fly-ash(silica)and phase of mixed system. The AC conductivity, which depends on frequency, adheres to universal power law. Power law parameter were determined.

Size effects on the magnetic properties of a system of ε-Fe2O3 nanoparticles embedded in a SiO2 xerogel matrix

A representative series of samples consisting of fine ε-Fe2O3 nanoparticles uniformly distributed over the SiO2 xerogel matrix with an iron oxide content of 5–33 wt % has been synthesized and studied by mutually complementary physical methods. It has been shown by the X-ray diffractometry and high-resolution electron microscopy examination that, with increasing iron oxide concentration, the average particle size <d> increases from 4 to 11 nm. According to the X-ray diffractometry and Mӧssbauer spectroscopy data, the samples with an iron oxide content of 5–20 wt % are single-phase, while at the highest Fe2O3 concentration (33 wt %), the β-Fe2O3 and α-Fe2O3 phases arise. As the average particle size <d> increases, a monotonic increase in coercivity HC and remanent magnetization MR of the synthesized systems at room temperature is observed, which is indicative of their magnetic hysteresis. The magnetic transition known to occur in the ε–Fe2O3 oxide manifests itself in all the investigated samples as a drastic change in the HC and MR values at 150–75 K. At the same time, a thorough analysis of the temperature dependence of the real part of the ac magnetic susceptibility χ′ has shown that the particles with a size smaller than a critical value of dC ∼6.5 nm do not undergo the magnetic transition and have a much lower magnetic anisotropy constant as compared with coarser particles (d > dC). It has been found that, in the low-temperature region, the magnetic moments of these fine particles experience superparamagnetic blocking. It has been established that the size effects that arise in ultra-fine ε–Fe2O3 particles has a serious impact on the macroscopic magnetic properties of the highly dispersed systems based on them.

Production sustained release dosage forms from deliquescent substances by solid dispersion systems

Introduction. The production of solid dosage forms from hygroscopic substances is a complex technological task. The addition of hygroscopic substances into a polymer matrix allows to reduce their moisture absorption capacity.Aim. Reducing the hygroscopicity of deliquescent substances and obtaining sustained release solid dosage forms by using solid dispersion systems.Materials and methods. Substance: DEAE; excipients: Kollidon® VA 64, Soluplus®, PEG 1500, PEG 6000, PEG 8000, Poloxamer Kolliphor® P 188 and Kolliphor® P 407; reagents: hydrochloric acid, sodium dihydrogen phosphate, potassium hydrogen phosphate. The melt of the components was obtained on a twin-screw laboratory extruder and cast into silicone molds. The resulting solid dosage forms were studied for disintegration in three environments corresponding to the sections of the human gastrointestinal tract.Results and discussion. The active pharmaceutical substance DEAE is characterized as deliquescent substance. The introduction of DEAE into PEG-polymer matrices made it possible to reduce the hygroscopicity of solid dosage forms in the form of bars. The introduction of solubilizers into the melt made it possible to obtain bars with the appropriate organoleptic properties. The release of DEAE from bear- or toroid-shaped bars occurs on average 29–47 % faster than from heart-shaped bars.Conclusion. Compositions based on Soluplus® and Kolliphor® P 407 have proven promising for further development of tiles containing DEAE. In order to create tiles with a slow release, it is recommended to use heart-shaped forms, as they have a smaller surface area.

Light source dependence on quantitative measurement for dispersibility of dark-colored colloidal dispersions

Abstract Colloidal particles are applied to manufacturing in various fields such as ink, food, and cosmetics etc. It is important to study about the dispersibility of colloidal particles because they are dispersed in some solvents. However, many of colloidal dispersions are dark colored and typical methods cannot evaluate the dispersibility. Therefore, dispersibility has been evaluated by naked eyes in almost all research papers. Therefore, we have fabricated quantitative dispersibility evaluation system (QDES) for the dark colloidal dispersion using light transparency by various light types and colors of bright lights. The obtained data were fitted with a stretched exponential function (SEF) to evaluate the dispersibility. As one of the examples of a dark colloidal particle, we chose graphene oxide (GO) which is applied to manufacturing with printing technology. From the measurement results, the red LED light is suitable for the QDES in terms of accuracy and applicability to the SEF.

Diffusion of N2/CH4/CO2 in Heptane-Containing Nanoblind Ends

The prevalence of micropores and nanopores in low-permeability reservoirs is a cause for concern, as it results in a sizeable quantity of oil reserves being trapped within them. The water-gas dispersion system has the capacity to expand the reservoirs’ wave volume and enhance oil recovery. While the microscopic oil repulsion mechanism has been the center of attention, the oil repulsion effect of three distinct types of gases (N2, CH4, and CO2) is of particular importance in understanding the displacement mechanism of N2/CH4/CO2 on heptane at the blind end of the nanometer. A molecular dynamics simulation using the LAMMPS software was employed to construct a model of a blind end of heptane on a SiO2 wall and an interface model with different types of gas molecules. This was done to investigate the microscopic mechanism of heptane replacement by gas molecules. The temperature (50 °C) and pressure (30 MPa) of the reservoir in the Changqing oil field are selected as the parameters for analysis. The findings indicate that all three types of gas molecules can enter the blind end and displace heptane. However, supercritical CO2 forms a mixed phase with heptane, which is more prone to extruding oil molecules situated near the inner wall surface of the blind end and desorbing the oil film. The results demonstrate that, in the context of the blind end, gaseous CO2 exhibits a lower solvation ability but superior extrusion diffusion ability for heptane compared to N2 and CH4. Furthermore, the interaction energy indicates that the interactions between two states of CO2 and heptane, as well as the thickness of the interface, increase with increasing pressure and temperature. The findings of this study elucidate the microscopic mechanism underlying the replacement of oil droplets or oil films at the blind end by different gases under reservoir conditions at the molecular level and offer further guidance for the selection of the gas phase and the replacement state in the water-gas dispersive drive system.

Optimization of synthesis of cationic starches for wastewater sludge and microalgae separation

The implementation of stricter water protection legislation requires the development of novel environmentally friendly water treatment materials. A new method for the preparation of water soluble cationic starch flocculants using potato starch, 3-chloro-2-hydroxypropyltrimethylammonium chloride and CaO additive was developed and surface response methodology was successfully utilized for the optimization of degree of substitution in the cationization of potato starch with and without CaO additive. Based on the results of destabilization studies of model kaolin, wastewater sludge, and microalgae dispersion systems, optimized conditions ware proposed for obtaining an efficient, soluble, and biodegradable cationic starch flocculant with optimal structure. The duration of starch etherification reaction was reduced to <12 h to obtain soluble cationic starch derivatives with a degree of substitution of quaternary ammonium groups of 0.25, which retained the granular structure during synthesis. An efficient flocculation technology using anionic polymer and high content of biodegradable cationic flocculant was proposed. The highly efficient flocculation of microalgae suspensions using developed cationic starch derivative with the degree of substitution of cationic groups of 0.25 has been also achieved. The developed environmentally friendly cationic starches with tailored flocculation properties proofed to have a great potential in various water cleaning and separation technologies with prospects in wastewater treatment, agriculture or energy sectors.

A Rootless Duckweed-Inspired Flexible Artificial Leaf from Plasmonic Photocatalysts.

The naturally existing leaves are ubiquitous two-dimensional flexible solar-to-chemical conversion systems that can run continuously in a sustainable manner. However, the current artificial photocatalytic systems are unable to achieve this due to the grand challenge in integrating existing photocatalysts in a flexible layout with high conversion efficiency and the ability to function independently. Here, we report on a rootless duckweed-inspired artificial leaf based on a lightweight, flexible, Janus plasmonic nanosheet-integrated sponge. The Janus plasmonic catalytically active nanosheet was made from self-assembled gold nanocube nanoassemblies grown on the porous sponges, which were further coated with an ultrathin palladium layer on one side via a ligand symmetry-breaking method. This sponge-based photocatalytic system is lightweight yet able to float on a water surface and conducts the gas-liquid reaction without auxiliary pumping and mixing devices. In a model reaction of 4-nitrophenol reduction, this floating leaf could achieve 2.5-fold and 65-fold higher efficiency than the corresponding dispersion and precipitation systems, respectively. The film theory is used to explain the sponge-based lightweight solar-to-chemical conversion system in a detailed kinetic and thermodynamic analysis, including the reaction rate constant, activation energy, enthalpy, entropy, Gibbs energy, and equilibrium constant.

Comparison of On-Sky Wavelength Calibration Methods for Integral Field Spectrograph

With advancements in technology, scientists are delving deeper in their explorations of the universe. Integral field spectrograph (IFS) play a significant role in investigating the physical properties of supermassive black holes at the centers of galaxies, the nuclei of galaxies, and the star formation processes within galaxies, including under extreme conditions such as those present in galaxy mergers, ultra-low-metallicity galaxies, and star-forming galaxies with strong feedback. IFS transform the spatial field into a linear field using an image slicer and obtain the spectra of targets in each spatial resolution element through a grating. Through scientific processing, two-dimensional images for each target band can be obtained. IFS use concave gratings as dispersion systems to decompose the polychromatic light emitted by celestial bodies into monochromatic light, arranged linearly according to wavelength. In this experiment, the working environment of a star was simulated in the laboratory to facilitate the wavelength calibration of the space integral field spectrometer. Tools necessary for the calibration process were also explored. A mercury–argon lamp was employed as the light source to extract characteristic information from each pixel in the detector, facilitating the wavelength calibration of the spatial IFS. The optimal peak-finding method was selected by contrasting the center of weight, polynomial fitting, and Gaussian fitting methods. Ultimately, employing the 4FFT-LMG algorithm to fit Gaussian curves enabled the determination of the spectral peak positions, yielding wavelength calibration coefficients for a spatial IFS within the range of 360 nm to 600 nm. The correlation of the fitting results between the detector pixel positions and corresponding wavelengths was &gt;99.99%. The calibration accuracy during wavelength calibration was 0.0067 nm, reaching a very high level.

Study on the crystallinity of PEG on the crystalline size of flavonoids in a crystalline dispersion system

Poor water solubility and low bioavailability of flavonoids present significant barriers to their development and application. To address these challenges, this study explores the use of crystalline solid dispersions (CSDs) to reduce drug crystalline size and enhance in vivo bioavailability. The CSDs were prepared using a spray-drying technique with chrysin (CHY) and quercetin (QUR) as model drugs and various molecular weights of polyethylene glycol (PEG) as carriers. The authors systematically investigated the factors influencing the interaction between flavonoids and PEG in CSDs. These factors included the relationships between intermolecular interactions and PEG molecular weight, crystallinity, microstructures such as crystalline domain size and crystal morphology of the flavonoids and PEG in CSDs, crystalline size of the drug in CSDs, and in vitro dissolution rate and in vivo pharmacokinetics. Our results indicated that the interaction between flavonoids and PEG in CSDs was influenced more by PEG crystallinity than by its molecular weight. Lower crystallinity of PEG, achieved through recrystallization, led to stronger intermolecular interactions with the drugs. Specifically, PEG8000 exhibited the lowest crystallinity, indicating a higher content of PEG in the amorphous state, which interacted more effectively with the amorphous drug in CSDs. This interaction significantly inhibited drug crystallization growth, resulting in a marked decrease in drug crystalline domain size and crystalline size. Consequently, PEG8000 was identified as the optimal carrier for preparing CSDs, achieving the best cumulative dissolution percentage. The QUR/PEG8000-CSD formulation increased the cumulative dissolution percentage and oral bioavailability of QUR by 18.76 and 20.66 times, respectively, compared to QUR alone. This study demonstrates that PEG crystallinity, following recrystallization, directly affects its intermolecular interactions with the drug, thereby impacting drug crystalline size and dissolution rate.

Synergistic Tribological Effects of Ti3C2Tx MXene and ZDDP under Simple Grafting Strategies for Efficient Lubrication.

MXenes, a novel class of two-dimensional materials, possess exceptional physical and chemical properties, positioning them as promising candidates for lubricant additives. However, their potential is constrained by challenges in dispersion and stability, coupled with a paucity of research on interactions with additives in full-formula oils. In this study, hexadecylphosphonic acid (HDPA) is grafted onto Ti3C2Tx to formulate a polyalkylene glycol dispersion system. The findings reveal that the HDPA-modified Ti3C2Tx (HDPA-Ti3C2) is successfully synthesized, demonstrating superior dispersion stability and notable friction-reduction and antiwear properties. Notably, when combined with zinc dialkyl dithiophosphate (ZDDP), the HDPA-Ti3C2/ZDDP composite additive outperforms single additives in tribological performance, suggesting synergistic effects between them. This enhanced performance may be attributed to the formation of an amorphous polyphosphate tribofilm offering wear resistance, followed by the generation of a TiO2 tribofilm that further safeguards and repairs the worn surface, thereby enhancing the load-bearing capacity. Concurrently, the interlayer sliding mechanism of nanosheets, which substitutes the relative motion of the friction pair, reduces friction under boundary lubrication, ensuring prolonged effective lubrication. This work broadens the application prospects of Ti3C2Tx MXene for the design and development of commercial lubricating additives.