Dispersed Rural Areas Research Articles

Standard Quality Characteristics and Efficacy of a New Third-Generation Antivenom Developed in Colombia Covering Micrurus spp. Venoms.

In Colombia, Micrurus snakebites are classified as severe according to the national clinical care guidelines and must be treated with specific antivenoms. Unfortunately, these types of antivenoms are scarce in certain areas of the country and are currently reported as an unavailable vital medicine. To address this issue, La Universidad de Antioquia, through its spin-off Tech Life Saving, is leading a project to develop third-generation polyvalent freeze-dried antivenom. The goal is to ensure access to this therapy, especially in rural and dispersed areas. This project aims to evaluate the physicochemical and preclinical parameters (standard quality characteristics) of a lab-scale anti-elapid antivenom batch. The antivenom is challenged against the venoms of several Micrurus species, including M. mipartitus, M. dumerilii, M. ancoralis, M. dissoleucus, M. lemniscatus, M. medemi, M. spixii, M. surinamensis, and M. isozonus, following the standard quality characteristics set by the World Health Organization (WHO). The antivenom demonstrates an appearance consistent with standards, 100% solubility within 4 min and 25 s, an extractable volume of 10.39 mL, a pH of 6.04, an albumin concentration of 0.377 mg/mL (equivalent to 1.22% of total protein), and a protein concentration of 30.97 mg/mL. Importantly, it maintains full integrity of its F(ab')2 fragments and exhibits purity over 98.5%. Furthermore, in mice toxicity evaluations, doses up to 15 mg/mouse show no toxic effects. The antivenom also demonstrates a significant recognition pattern against Micrurus venoms rich in phospholipase A2 (PLA2) content, as observed in M. dumerilii, M. dissoleucus, and M. isozonus. The effective dose 50 (ED50) indicates that a single vial (10 mL) can neutralize 2.33 mg of M. mipartitus venom and 3.99 mg of M. dumerilii venom. This new anti-elapid third-generation polyvalent and freeze-dried antivenom meets the physicochemical parameters set by the WHO and the regulators in Colombia. It demonstrates significant efficacy in neutralizing the venom of the most epidemiologically important Micrurus species in Colombia. Additionally, it recognizes seven other species of Micrurus venom with a higher affinity for venoms exhibiting PLA2 toxins. Fulfilling these parameters represents the first step toward proposing a new pharmacological alternative for treating snakebites in Colombia, particularly in dispersed rural areas, given that this antivenom is formulated as a freeze-dried product.

Estimating geographic access to healthcare facilities in Sub-Saharan Africa by Degree of Urbanisation

Measuring rates of coverage and spatial access to healthcare services is essential to inform policies for development. These rates tend to reflect the urban-rural divide, typically with urban areas experiencing higher accessibility than rural ones. Especially in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), a region experiencing high disease burden amid fast urbanisation and population growth. However, such assessment has been hindered by a lack of updated and comparable geospatial data on urbanisation and health facilities. In this study, we apply the UN-endorsed Degree of Urbanisation (DoU or DEGURBA) method to investigate how geographic access to healthcare facilities varies across the urban-rural continuum in SSA as a whole and in each country, for circa 2020. Results show that geographic access is overall highest in cities and peri-urban areas, where more than 95% of inhabitants live within 30 min from the nearest HCF, with this share decreasing to 80–90% in towns. This share is lowest in villages and dispersed rural areas (65%), with about 10–15% of population more than 3 h away from any health post. Challenges in geographic access seem mostly determined by high travel impedance, since overall spatial densities of HCF are comparable to European levels.

Luminescence Toxicological Analysis of Water Supply Systems in Dispersed Rural Areas: A Case Study in Boyacá, Colombia

The quality of water supply systems is still a major problem in developing countries, especially in rural areas. The acute bioluminescence V. fischeri inhibition assay is widely recognized as a toxicological method that can be used to detect the acute effects of different contaminants. In this study, the physicochemical characteristics and toxicology of 72 water samples collected in 18 rural aqueducts located in Boyacá (Colombia) were evaluated. The primary economic activities identified as potential influencers of water quality in the water supply basins were agriculture (n = 3), livestock (n = 2), and domestic sewage discharge (n = 1). The average luminescence inhibition rate was 66%, with a minimum of 29%, and a maximum of 97%. A total of 85% of the tested samples (n = 61) had “moderate acute hazard”, while 15% (n = 15) had “acute hazard”. A total of 95% of the aqueducts distributed water with high risk. There was a weak positive correlation between the apparent color and the V. fischeri inhibition rate (p < 0.05). The water treatments, including disinfection, and the economic activities had no correlation with the inhibition rate of luminescent bacteria. The results of this investigation can be used by sanitary authorities to incorporate future toxicological monitoring of chemical contaminants, such as humic substances and metals, into water-quality monitoring in rural areas.

Hybrid energy for dispersed rural areas of the Province of Santiago del Estero (Argentina) in the framework of the SDG 2030 and the MDBA

The provision of sustainable energy solutions in Rural Areas with Dispersed Population (ARPoDs) without the possibility of interconnection to power grids in the Province of Santiago del Estero (Argentina), motivates a preliminary analysis of the context at the global, national and provincial levels, and then to explore options that integrate different energy sources applied to a case study, specifically to the community located in the town of Las Viboritas, in the Mitre department of the aforesaid province. The purpose of the work is to present the analysis of the energy situation and possible energy supply solutions in the field of ARPDs from an integrative perspective, based on the 2030 ODS and the so-called New Rurality. In addition, the study of an alternative using solar-wind hybrid energy systems is described, contrasted with other options, even based on fossil fuels. A recognized computational tool is applied that allows optimizing the operation of systems with hybrid energy sources for each hour of the year. The design is carried out from the quantification of the demand, the dimensioning and cost of the technologies that make up the hybrid system, and the availability of renewable resources at the site under study. As a result, a solar-fossil hybrid system with a lithium accumulation bank is proposed, since this system presents greater reliability and safety for its operation as an isolated network.

Use of satellite indicators to monitor the proximity of agro-industrial crops to urban and rural educational establishments over large areas

The American continent is the largest producer of genetically modified crops worldwide, characterized by the massive use of pesticides and agrochemicals, of which numerous scientific studies and reports show risks to human health. The child-youth population living in these regions constitutes an age group with its own characteristics that make it more vulnerable to possible exposure to pesticide use. The use of satellite information on cloud platforms can facilitate the measurement and creation of exploratory indicators over large study areas to assess the degree of exposure in educational establishments. The objective of this research is to create and evaluate exploratory indicators of the proximity of intensive crops to educational establishments in central Argentina, using satellite spatial–temporal analysis methodologies. The study was conducted in the province of Córdoba (Argentina). A total of 2263 public and private sector educational institutions were selected, both urban and rural. Perimeter rings were created in each establishment, at different distances up to 2000 m from the periphery. Satellite data of active summer crops in the period 2016–2019 were calculated using the Google Earth Engine. Proximity indicators and crop coverage areas were created. Ninety-two per cent of the educational establishments analyzed have at least one crop field nearby within a radius of 2000 m. More than half of these have fields that are 500 m or less away. The peripheral occupation of crops in more than half of the educational establishments varies between 25 and 100% (in the entire ring). The establishments in dispersed rural areas would be the most exposed, with an average proximity to the first field of less than 180 m. Kindergartens and primary schools are closer and have a higher percentage of peripheral crops than the secondary and special education schools. Our research reveals a worrying panorama that combines the proximity of educational establishments to fields cultivated with GM crops; research that shows a higher degree of exposure to agricultural pesticide pollution and adverse health effects for this age group, and local regulations that allow their application close to educational establishments and cities where they carry out their main activities.

The challenges of monitoring and controlling drinking-water quality in dispersed rural areas: a case study based on two settlements in the Colombian Caribbean.

Water quality surveillance systems are hardly applied in rural contexts. To provide a comprehensive analysis of drinking-water quality in two rural settlements in the Colombian Caribbean drinking-water samples were collected and analyzed from storage containers in 42 homes. The results of physical, chemical, and microbiological analyses of the water samples were compared with values established by the World Health Organization (WHO) Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality, and Colombian regulations. The Kruskal-Wallis test was applied to compare each parameter for supply source, season (rainy or dry), settlement, and types of storage. Drinking-water Quality Risk Index (IRCA) was calculated for each of the samples. The water supply sources were varied: well (33.3%), rainwater (23.8%), artificial pond (23.8%), and river (19.0%). One-hundred percent of the samples contained Escherichia coli and total coliforms. The IRCA varied between 57.3 and 83.9, with a median of 72.9. Eighty-eight percent of the samples exhibited high risk levels (35.1 < IRCA < 80.0) and 12% were unsanitary (80.1 < IRCA < 100.0). Artificial pond water was the source of supply with the worst IRCA (83.79). Drinking water in the El Cascajo and La Delfina settlements does not meet international and national drinking-water standards. A change is required whereby monitoring and quality control policies take into account the reality of rural settings.

Improved and promising fecal sludge sanitizing methods: treatment of fecal sludge using resource recovery technologies

AbstractThe global challenges that face sustainable sanitation services in developing countries are the lack of fecal sludge (FS) management; this is due to the rapid urbanization and population growth as it generates enormous quantities of fecal sludge. The extensive use of unimproved sanitation technologies is one of the main reasons for environmental and public health concerns. In dispersed rural areas, isolated slums or in urban areas where a sewerage system is costly, a decentralized wastewater system can be used. Therefore centralized management of decentralized wastewater systems along with proper institutional framework treatment of fecal sludge can be used to enhance the economies of developing countries from resource recovery. The discovery of new ways to inactivate pathogens contained in human waste is key in improving access to sanitation worldwide and reducing the impact of conventional waste management processes on the environment. The entire FS management system should include on-site sanitary treatment methods, collection, and transportation of FS, treatment facilities as well as resource recovery or disposal of the treated end products. This review paper addresses the hygienization of fecal sludge and improved treatment technologies for safe reuse or disposal of the end products and the significant economic revenues attained from the treatments of fecal sludge.

Estrategias y dispositivos comunitarios en procesos de desarrollo territorial en Aldea Beleiro; Chubut, Argentina.

Aldea Beleiro es una de las tres localidades foco de investigación entre 2018-2019, con el PICT “Estrategias y dispositivos comunitarios y estatales en procesos de desarrollo territorial de pequeñas localidades y zonas rurales dispersas del sudoeste de la provincia de Chubut”. El objetivo es analizar estrategias y dispositivos, tanto estatales como comunitarios, que en función de los escenarios de aislamientos e integraciones, contribuyan a procesos de desarrollo territorial en pequeñas localidades y espacios rurales dispersos del sudoeste de la provincia de Chubut. La metodología se aborda desde la pesquisa cartográfica y articula una serie de herramientas en desarrollo y experimentales. El proceso de investigación pone en diálogo permanente los textos producidos, las conclusiones parciales y las ideas producidas con la población local para pensar las diferentes estrategias y dispositivos puestos en marcha desde la comunidad activando así micro-procesos de desarrollo territorial.

Stakeholders, Primary Health Care and Dispersed Rurality

Abstract Objective To characterize the existing tensions between actors which condition the implementation of the renewed primary healthcare (PHC), in the context of the most recent Colombian post-conflict years, in the territories of high rurality of the Pacific Coast. Methods We performed a qualitative study based on action research methodology with a critical and reflexive analysis of the social and institutional actors in the implementation of the Renewed PHC model in dispersed rural areas (Afro-Colombian and indigenous) the Pacific coast. We analyzed the different interested parties and the concordance between the community and institutional actors. Results The level of implementation of the Renewed PHC in high rurality territories of the Colombian Pacific Coast, intersects with tensions arising from the armed conflict, that affect sustainability and governance of the territory, and the intercultural tensions between the national health model in Colombia and the communities' social representations of their own health and development. Only 25% of the Renewed PHC elements are present, under low or medium conditions. Analysis of actors -Stakeholders-, according to their nature, level of presence, and power in the area indicates the absence of the Colombian government in these territories. Members of the community and their health resources constitute 48% of the Renewed PHC parties. Conclusions Limited understanding of the ethnic logics on health and development stands out as the main tension among actors to advance with the implementation of the Renewed PHC in post-conflict territories with high rurality. The national health model has a low capacity to accurately address health priorities from the Afro-descendant and Indigenous communities occupying such territories, with a differentiated, intercultural offer that would be able to act integrally on the dynamics of the illegal economy (illegal mining and illicit crops), which can seriously compromise their food security. Key messages Only 25% of the components of the renewed PHC are present in the territories with high dispersed rurality. In the post-conflict period, there are still tensions between community actors and stakeholders (Institutions).

Rural Isolation, Small Towns, and the Risk of Intimate Partner Violence.

Ethnographic research from the United States on gender-based violence showing that rural isolation exacerbates intimate partner violence (IPV) is at odds with estimates from nationally representative victimization surveys which indicate that the incidence of IPV in settlements conventionally characterized as rural is similar to or less than the incidence for urban settlements. One possible reason for this discrepancy-that the conventional metropolitan statistical area-based measure of settlement type fails to distinguish isolated rural areas from other nonmetropolitan places-is put to test in this study. Pooled data from 578,471 women interviewed a total of 1,672,999 times in the National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS) between 1994 and 2015 were used in this study to consider the risk of IPV across a measure of settlement type that differentiates nonmetropolitan settlements into dispersed rural areas or residentially concentrated small towns. Logistic regression estimates of semiannual IPV prevalence were modeled using generalized estimating equations and robust standard errors to compensate for repeated measures and for the complex sample design of the NCVS. After adjusting for age, race/ethnicity, year, and time in sample, these analyses indicated that women from dispersed rural settlements had a lower semiannual risk of IPV (2.31 per 1,000 [95% confidence interval [CI] = [2.02, 2.64]]) than women from small towns (3.30 per 1,000 women [95% CI = [2.82, 3.87]]) or women from the urban core (2.60 per 1,000 [95% CI = [2.44, 2.77]]). Contrary to the ethnographic record, the results of this study indicate that women living in rural isolation are at a lower risk of IPV victimization relative to other American women and that women from small towns-the urbanized portions of nonmetropolitan counties-have been most at risk of suffering physical violence committed by an intimate partner.

Substantial reduction in child stunting is differentially associated to geographical and socioeconomic disparities in Misiones Province, Argentina.

To estimate trends in the prevalence of child stunting in the population of children under 5years of age covered by public health programmes, between 2009 and 2014 in Misiones, Argentina. Using Bayesian model-based geostatistics, we evaluated 724872 anthropometric measurements corresponding to 110633 children. In order to identify disparities at local scale, we evaluated the hypotheses of a differential reduction of stunting according to the geographical location (at two-level spatial resolution) and to the socioeconomic level in a rural or urban environment. The prevalence of stunting had fallen significantly in the province overall. Sex and age defined gender disparities at individual level, and there were regional disparities with higher prevalence values in the north and northeast regions. In these areas, stunting decreased to a greater degree during the studied period, although the spatial pattern remained smoother. Stunting increased in peripheral urban and dispersed rural areas that are socioeconomically vulnerable. The spatial multi-level geostatistical estimates of child undernutrition provide a precision public health tool to target public policies to those populations with the greatest need, in order to reduce health disparities.

Statistical evaluation of fluoride contamination in groundwater resources of Santiago del Estero Province, Argentina

This study investigates the suitability of statistical techniques for evaluating the fluoride content and the groundwater quality from Robles Department (RD) and Banda Department (BD) in Santiago del Estero (Argentina). For the original statistical study, evaluation of nine parameters (fluoride, pH, conductivity, atmospheric and water temperature, total dissolved solids, chloride, hardness, and alkalinity) of 110 collected underground water samples from 23 dispersed rural areas was proposed. Groundwater samples were obtained by sampling taken from wells at different depths. Fluoride levels were determined by a standard colorimetric method in two seasonal periods, the dry (from April to September) and rainy (from October to March) period. The analytical results obtained for physicochemical parameters such as pH, total dissolved solids (TDS), and temperature does not reveal any notable difference between the rainy and dry seasons studied. In both seasons, the atmospheric temperature average was 22 ​°C. With respect to fluoride content, approximately 50% of the analysed groundwater samples exceeded the limit established by current legislation (1.0 ​mg/L), obtaining concentration levels in the range of 0.01–2.80 ​mg/L. This study demonstrates the usefulness of the univariate statistical method (quartiles calculation, interquartile range IQR), multivariate principal component analysis (PCA), and cluster analysis to establish a better understanding of the state of the contamination of the waters in the region studied.

OS DISTRITOS MUNICIPAIS NO BRASIL: UMA LEITURA GEOGRÁFICA A PARTIR DE JAMAICA E JACIPORÃ, MUNICÍPIO DE DRACENA (SÃO PAULO/BRASIL) / THE MUNICIPAL DISTRICTS IN BRAZIL: A GEOGRAPHY READING OF JAMAICA AND JACIPORÃ, MUNICIPALITY OF DRACENA (SÃO PAULO/BRAZIL)

Busca-se apresentar e discutir os resultados da pesquisa de mestrado realizada nos distritos municipais de Jamaica e Jaciporã, Dracena, Estado de São Paulo, cujo objetivo principal foi analisar as características econômicas, sociais e culturais engendradas na organização espacial dos distritos municipais, decorrentes das mudanças verificadas no setor agropecuário regional. As etapas da pesquisa incluíram revisão bibliográfica, sistematização de dados de fonte secundária, pesquisa de campo (observação, aplicação de questionários e realização de entrevistas) e análise dos dados e informações produzidas. Foram explorados, além dos aspectos formais dos distritos, os traços engendrados pelas modificações no setor agropecuário regional, percebidas a partir da crise da cafeicultura entre as décadas de 1970 e 1980. Averiguou-se que as mudanças na estrutura fundiária e nas relações de trabalho contribuíram para que os distritos se tornassem espaços, majoritariamente, destinados ao uso residencial para a população empregada no setor de serviços na cidade de Dracena. Houve diminuição da população vivendo nos distritos e, principalmente, no entorno – áreas do rural disperso. Nos distritos nota-se que a ruralidade ultrapassa o setor agrícola e é marcada pela convivência, proximidade e laços de parentesco entre os moradores e pelas estratégias “solidárias” desenvolvidas pela população a fim de alcançar amenidades no cotidiano, solução de conflitos e melhorias nos distritos.

Selected design issues of the medical cyber-physical system for telemonitoring pregnancy at home

The telemonitoring problem of high-risk pregnancies at home is introduced, and some design issues of the monitoring system are identified. A Medical Cyber-Physical System (MCPS) approach has been taken. Various MCPS design issues and requirements, like: interaction of caregivers and a patient with the MCPS system, Plug-and-Play architecture, maintenance support for caregivers, interoperability of medical devices, medical workflows automation, dependability of the system, smart alerting, and intelligent acquisition of biosignals, have been addressed. The telecare system consists of the Body Area Network (BAN) of advanced sensors that are interconnected on a body of a pregnant woman, the Personal Area Network (PAN) that is responsible for embedded processing of physical signals, smart alerting, an intelligent human-machine-interface, and a reliable transmission channel to the Surveillance Centre located in a hospital or a local medical centre. The system integrates the new strategy for abdominal signal acquisition and analysis based on the smart selection of algorithms realized in the mobile instrumentation of PAN. Dependable telemedical systems, when broadly deployed, will provide a high societal value to high-risk pregnant women, especially those in dispersed rural areas.

Towards a medical cyber-physical system for home telecare of high-risk pregnancy

The paper introduces the problem of designing a medical cyber-physical system (MCPS) for telecare of pregnant women at home. Design challenges and requirements have been shortly explained, as well as the innovative elements of the underlined holistic design methodology and the architecture. The system consists of the Body Area Network (BAN) of advanced sensors that are interconnected on a body of a pregnant woman, the Personal Area Network (PAN) that is responsible for embedded processing of physical signals, smart alarms, and a transmission channel to the Central Surveillance Centre located in a hospital. It is expected that dependable telemedical systems will provide a high societal value to high-risk pregnant women, especially those in dispersed rural areas.

Employment and Employability of MBA Graduates: Departure from Clamor to March towards Glamour

Some of the reasons for unemployability of MBA graduates are not strictly within the domain of management institutes. Management institutes are expected to do much just because very little is done in school and colleges. To forget that time constraints operates in the management institutes also is not a wise policy by any reckoning. This is not to say that management institutes have no any share in the current predicament of unemployment of a very large number of their own products. B schools with poor infrastructure, incompetent teachers and outdated curriculum have done enormous damage to the cause of management education. Some silver linings are now visible. For another decade or so, the infrastructure sector will be growing with its variegated requirements of governance and management. Urbanization would increase avenues for entrepreneurship and management compare to what is possible in dispersed rural areas. India is emerging as the hub of manufacturing activities. New employment opportunities will arise for MBA graduates as the growth rate of the Indian economy picks up. B-schools need to prepare students with employability to deserve new opportunities in various sectors. The management institutes can play their role effectively only if they enjoy autonomy. While the state owned IIMs enjoy a high degree of autonomy, the privately owned management institutes are deprived of the same. This indeed paradoxical.

Solar home system electrification in dispersed rural areas: a 10‐year experience in Jujuy, Argentina

ABSTRACTThis paper presents a technical approach to the electrification of dispersed rural areas with the so‐called Solar Home Systems. Lessons learned from the past show not only problems and mistakes but also interesting positive points. The electrification of remote areas, with low‐density population and low energy consumption is still a problem to solve. Sustainability is a main issue addressed in all rural electrification assessment actions, together with financing of programs and systems. This work tries to advance in the knowledge on reliability and maintenance, planning and execution, in a dispersed rural electrification market. It is based on the 10‐year field experience in the province of Jujuy, Argentina. In the most dispersed areas of the province, there are about 3000 households plus a minor number of schools, churches, health posts, and community premises electrified with small individual photovoltaic systems from a decade ago. Most remarkable outcomes from a long‐term operation and monitoring action are summarized and analyzed in the following pages. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley &amp; Sons, Ltd.