Disparities In Violence Research Articles

Racial capitalism and firearm violence: Developing a theoretical framework for firearm violence research examining structural racism

Despite the early promise of centering structural racism in explanatory models of firearm violence, there are noticeable gaps in what's been produced thus far; in particular, a deeper and more serious engagement with long-standing theories of racism is needed to further enrich our understanding of how structural inequalities produce unequal burdens of firearm-related harms. Thus, building on theories and concepts from a range of academic fields and Black philosophical perspectives, we developed a theoretical framework to help explain the role of place-based structural racism on firearm violence disparities. A central component of our framework is the concept racial capitalism, which contends that racial exploitation and the accumulation of assets depend on and reinforce one another. In this article, we present our framework and highlight how two processes related to racial capitalism—racialized dispossession and racialized spatial stigma—are connected with geographic disparities in firearm violence. We also present the results of an ecological cross-sectional study that reveals a potential key association between racial capitalism and firearm violence disparities on the neighborhood-level. We used a structural intersectionality approach and descriptive epidemiological methods to highlight and quantitatively describe spatial firearm violence disparities that could potentially be linked to the varying exposure of two dimensions of racial capitalism—historical redlining and contemporary racialized subprime mortgage lending. We found that sustained disadvantaged census tracts (tracts that were historically redlined and experienced higher contemporary subprime lending) experienced the highest burden of firearm violence in Baltimore City between 2015 and 2019. Our research suggests that racial capitalism could potentially be a root cause of firearm violence disparities. A theoretical framework based on racial capitalism can inform the development and usage of indicators and analytic methods for racism-related firearm violence research. Moreover, this framework can identify factors to prioritize in equity-based violence prevention policies and programs.

Addressing Health Disparities in Violence

Abstract Purpose of Review Healthcare disparities exist throughout the medical field and are highly pronounced concerning violence in the Black community. Addressing it involves not just an understanding of the problem, but the ability to enact widespread interventions at multiple levels, particularly the systemic level. Recent Findings Historically, investigations into the drivers of firearm violence have been largely at the individual or interpersonal level, but recent research has centered social determinants of health and structural racism as potential drivers of disparities in firearm violence. Understanding these potential contributors of these disparities allows for targeted solutions to combat violence and promote health equity. Summary A full investigation into the drivers of disparities is the key to successful implementation of public health strategies that promote health equity.

Violence and Related Health Outcomes in Sexual and Gender Minority Communities: Introduction to the Special Issue.

Violence affects every community but is particularly prevalent among sexual and gender minority (SGM) people. Although research on violence within SGM populations is increasing, knowledge gaps remain that limit development of evidence-based policy, prevention, and intervention efforts to reduce the violence disparities the SGM community faces. In 2021, the National Institutes of Health (NIH) hosted a multiphase scientific workshop to identify and prioritize key research needs to further our understanding of violence affecting SGM communities and its health outcomes. In this perspective, we summarize the research needs identified. NIH supports this special issue as an outcome of the scientific workshop.

Impact of COVID-related policies on gunshot wound assault hospitalizations in the United States: a statewide time series analysis

BackgroundThe CDC recently reported that firearm homicide rates in the United States increased in 2020, particularly among Black/African American individuals and men 25–44 years old. It is unclear whether firearm hospitalizations also increased, and more importantly, what impact the COVID-19 pandemic and COVID-related policies had. Using the North Carolina Trauma Registry, a statewide registry of trauma admissions to eighteen North Carolina hospitals, we calculated weekly GSW hospitalization rates from 1/2019 to 12/2020, overall and stratified by race-ethnicity, age, and sex. Interrupted time-series design and segmented linear regression were used to estimate changes in weekly hospitalization rates over time after (1) U.S. declaration of a public health emergency; (2) statewide Stay-at-Home order; (3) Stay-at-Home order lifted with restrictions (Phase 2: Safer-at-Home); and (4) further lifting of restrictions (Phase 2.5: Safer-at-Home). Non-GSW assault hospitalizations were used as a control to assess whether trends were observed across all assault hospitalizations or if effects were specific to gun violence.FindingsOverall, 47.3% (n = 3223) of assault hospitalizations were GSW. Among GSW hospitalizations, median age was 27 years old (interquartile range [IQR] 21–25), 86.2% were male, and 49.5% occurred after the U.S. declared a public health emergency. After the Stay-at-Home order was implemented, weekly GSW hospitalization rates began increasing substantially among Black/African American residents (weekly trend change = 0.775, 95% CI = 0.254 to 1.296), peaking at an average 15.6 hospitalizations per 1,000,000 residents. Weekly hospitalization rates declined after restrictions were lifted but remained elevated compared to pre-COVID levels in this group (average weekly rate 10.6 per 1,000,000 at the end of 2020 vs. 8.9 per 1,000,000 pre-pandemic). The Stay-at-Home order was also associated with increasing GSW hospitalization rates among males 25–44 years old (weekly trend change = 1.202, 95% CI = 0.631 to 1.773); rates also remained elevated among 25–44-year-old males after restrictions were lifted in 2020 (average weekly rate 10.1 vs. 7.9 per 1,000,000). Non-GSW hospitalization rates were relatively stable in 2020.ConclusionsThe COVID-19 pandemic and statewide Stay-at-Home orders appeared to have placed Black/African American residents and men ages 25–44 at higher risk for GSW hospitalizations, exacerbating pre-existing disparities. Persistent gun violence disparities must be addressed.

Making Drug use Dangerous for Black Men: Race, Drugs, Violence, and Criminal Justice

Differential treatment under the law has historically been the case for African Americans. The current study theorized that the War on Drugs, which was waged disproportionately in majority Black communities, had the unintended effect of making drug use riskier for Black men by limiting the supply of drugs to high-risk populations who commit far more serious and violent criminal offenses. A subsample of the Add Health data containing Black and White male survey participants were compared with respect to drug use, violence, and criminal justice involvement. Drug use was found to be less prevalent, overall, for Black men but its association with violence was greater for Black men than White men. Differential legal treatment for violence and drugs was found to be greater for Black men than White men and had diminishing returns for deterring violence and negative returns for drugs by predicting greater use. Accounting for differential legal treatment did not significantly reduce predicted racial disparities in violence or drug use. Implications of these findings are discussed.

Neighborhood segregation, tree cover and firearm violence in 6 U.S. cities, 2015–2020

Neighborhood segregation by race and income is a structural determinant of firearm violence. Addressing green space deficits in segregated neighborhoods is a promising prevention strategy. This study assessed the potential for reducing firearm violence disparities by increasing access to tree cover. Units of analysis were census tracts in six U.S. cities (Baltimore, MD; Philadelphia, PA; Richmond, VA; Syracuse, NY; Washington, DC; Wilmington, DE). We measured segregation using the index of concentration at the extremes (ICE) for race-income. We calculated proportion tree cover based on 2013–2014 imagery. Outcomes were 2015–2020 fatal and non-fatal shootings from the Gun Violence Archive. We modeled firearm violence as a function of ICE, tree cover, and covariates representing the social and built environment. Next, we simulated possible effects of “tree equity” programs, i.e., raising tract-level tree cover to a specified baseline level.In our fully-adjusted model, higher privilege on the ICE measure (1 standard deviation, SD) was associated with a 42% reduction in shootings (incidence rate ratio (IRR) = 0.58, 95% CI [0.54 0.62], p < 0.001). A 1-SD increase in tree cover was associated with a 9% reduction (IRR = 0.91, 95% CI [0.86, 0.97], p < 0.01). Simulated achievement of 40% baseline tree cover was associated with reductions in firearm violence, with the largest reductions in highly-deprived neighborhoods. Advancing tree equity would not disrupt the fundamental causes of racial disparities in firearm violence exposure, but may have the potential to help mitigate those disparities.

The COVID-19 pandemic and associated increases in experiences of assault violence among black men with low socioeconomic status living in Louisiana

BackgroundThe COVID-19 pandemic has had mental health, social, and economic implications among communities with high levels of social disadvantage; this may have impacted community violence rates. The objective of this study was to characterize overall trends in assault and social disadvantage of patients experiencing assault before and during the COVID-19 pandemic. MethodsAll trauma activations at a level one trauma center serving the entire southeast Louisiana region were included during March–August pre-COVID (2018–2019) and during COVID (2020). ICD-10 E-codes were used to identify trauma intent (assault vs. other). Assaults in this context are defined as physical injuries caused by an act of violence wherein the perpetrator was suspected or confirmed to have intended harm, injury, or death to the victim. Social disadvantage was assessed using the Area Deprivation Index (ADI). Change in the monthly rate of assault-trauma activations was assessed using negative binomial regression with adjustment for race, gender, and injury intent. The study was reviewed and approved by the Louisiana State University Health Sciences Institutional Review Board. ResultsA total of 4,233 trauma activations were included. The majority of activations occurred among men. Assaults increased from 27.5% of all activations pre-Covid to 35.6% during the pandemic. Penetrating trauma similarly increased from 29.5% to 35.7% of all activations. Negative binomial regression demonstrated that in addition to this increase in proportion of assaults relative to all activations, the monthly assault rate also increased by 20% during the pandemic. These increases were driven primarily by increased assaults among Black men. ADI rank did not change between study periods. ConclusionsHealth disparities in violence worsened during the pandemic: increased cases of assault occurred disproportionately among Black men, and assaults persisted in occurring primarily among low-ADI communities where burden had been high pre-pandemic. There is a critical need for resources and support to Black men, to mitigate violence and improve racial heath equity.

Neighborhood Racial and Economic Segregation and Disparities in Violence During the COVID-19 Pandemic.

Objectives. To describe associations between neighborhood racial and economic segregation and violence during the COVID-19 pandemic. Methods. For 13 US cities, we obtained zip code-level data on 5 violence outcomes from March through July 2018 through 2020. Using negative binomial regressions and marginal contrasts, we estimated differences between quintiles of racial, economic, and racialized economic segregation using the Index of Concentration at the Extremes as a measure of neighborhood privilege (1) in 2020 and (2) relative to 2018 through 2019 (difference-in-differences). Results. In 2020, violence was higher in less-privileged neighborhoods than in the most privileged. For example, if all zip codes were in the least privileged versus most privileged quintile of racialized economic segregation, we estimated 146.2 additional aggravated assaults (95% confidence interval = 112.4, 205.8) per zip code on average across cities. Differences over time in less-privileged zip codes were greater than differences over time in the most privileged for firearm violence, aggravated assault, and homicide. Conclusions. Marginalized communities endure endemically high levels of violence. The events of 2020 exacerbated disparities in several forms of violence. Public Health Implications. To reduce violence and related disparities, immediate and long-term investments in low-income neighborhoods of color are warranted. (Am J Public Health. 2022;112(1):144-153. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2021.306540).

"A Dad Can Get the Money and the Mom Stays at Home": Patriarchal Gender Role Attitudes, Intimate Partner Violence, Historical Oppression, and Resilience Among Indigenous Peoples.

Research has shown that gender role attitudes influence a number of health-related outcomes, including intimate partner violence (IPV). Yet the gender role attitudes of Indigenous peoples - a population that experiences persistent health and violence disparities - have received scant scholarly attention. Using the Framework of Historical Oppression, Resilience, and Transcendence (FHORT), the purpose of this mixed methodology was to qualitatively explore U.S. Indigenous peoples' gender role attitudes and quantitatively examine how key social determinants of health, including IPV perpetration, historical oppression, and resilience, relate to gender role attitudes. This research integrates qualitative and quantitative data from two Southeastern tribes with a total of 563 unique data sources. Regression analysis revealed male sex and IPV victimization were associated with higher patriarchal gender role attitudes, while historical oppression and resilience were associated with lower patriarchal gender role attitudes. Resilience was also associated with lower "victim blaming." Ethnographic team-based data analysis methods revealed qualitative themes of patriarchal gender role attitudes and gendered socialization processes. This work highlights how key aspects of the FHORT might explain Indigenous peoples' patriarchal gender role attitudes, suggesting the need to redress historical oppression and patriarchal roles through decolonization.

Annual Research Review: Youth firearm violence disparities in the United States and implications for prevention.

Research has identified the United States (U.S.) as a global outlier in its firearm ownership rates, with a correspondingly higher risk of youth firearm violence compared to other countries. The relative extent of disparities in youth firearm violence within the U.S. has been less clear. Little is known about factors in the social ecology driving these disparities and whether current firearm violence prevention approaches sufficiently address them. Applying a health disparities framework, we synthesized epidemiological, sociological, and prevention science literatures, emphasizing structural inequalities in youth sociocultural positionality in life course developmental context. We also highlighted findings from national injury data and other studies regarding the magnitude and impacts of youth firearm violence disparities. The burden of firearm violence varied markedly at intersections of gender, race, place, developmental stage, and homicidal or suicidal intent. Firearm homicide among Black boys and young men (ages 15-24) was at outlier levels - many times greater than the rates of any other demographic group, developmental stage, or violence intent, particularly in urban settings. Recent research has operationalized structural racism and implicated historically racialized spaces as a root cause of this disparity. In contrast, elevated firearm suicide rates were found among Native and White boys and young men in rural settings; firearm-related cultural attitudes and gender socialization were points of consideration to explain these disparities. We highlighted research-based youth firearm violence preventive interventions, and emphasized gaps in efforts focused on structural and sociocultural factors. More explicit attention to reducing firearm homicide among Black boys and young men and firearm suicide among Native and rural White boys and young men is urgently needed and has potential to substantially lower overall rates of firearm violence in the U.S.

Risk factors for assaultive reinjury and death following a nonfatal firearm assault injury: A population-based retrospective cohort study

Individuals with a firearm injury are at high risk of subsequent firearm victimization, but characteristics associated with sustaining recurrent firearm injuries are not well understood. In this retrospective cohort study, we sought to quantify the hazards of sustaining subsequent assaultive firearm injuries among people with an initial firearm assault injury and to identify characteristics associated with recurrent victimization. Using hospital discharge, emergency department, and mortality records, we identified and followed all individuals aged ≥15 years with a nonfatal firearm assault injury resulting in an emergency department visit or hospital admission in California, 2005–2013. We model transitions from one injury to the next and from injury to death, accounting for event history, covariates, and competing risks using multistate models. 29,156 people had an index nonfatal firearm assault injury. Among individuals with 1 such injury, 3.1% had additional nonfatal firearm assault injuries and 1.0% subsequently died from firearm homicide. Among individuals with 2+ nonfatal firearm assaults, 2.0% died from firearm homicide. The estimated transition probability for 1 to 2+ nonfatal injuries reached 10% by 8.5 years post-index injury. The rate of subsequent nonfatal firearm assault injury was highest among men (hazard ratio [HR]: 3.87; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 2.63–5.69) and Blacks (vs. whites) (HR: 2.69; 95% CI: 1.99–3.64). Identification of additional risk markers will require more detailed individual-level data; nonetheless, this study supports the generalizability of findings from smaller studies, provides broad guidance for allocating scarce resources, and suggests that interventions on root causes of violence disparities may have downstream effects on recurrence.

Elite violence and elite numeracy in Europe from 500 to 1900 CE: roots of the divergence

Our research expands earlier studies on elite human capital by widening the geographic scope and tracing the early roots of the European divergence. We present new evidence of elite numeracy in Europe since the sixth century CE. During the early medieval period, Western Europe had no advantage over the east, but the development of relative violence levels changed this. After implementing an instrumental variable strategy and a battery of robustness tests, we find a substantial relationship between elite numeracy and elite violence, and conclude that violence had a detrimental impact on human capital formation. For example, the disparities in violence between Eastern and Western Europe helped to shape the famous divergence movement via this elite numeracy mechanism and had substantial implications for the economic fortunes of each region over the following centuries.

Social ecological factors associated with experiencing violence among urban refugee and displaced adolescent girls and young women in informal settlements in Kampala, Uganda: a cross-sectional study

BackgroundResearch on violence targeting urban forcibly displaced adolescent girls and young women (AGYW) is limited, particularly regarding polyvictimization (exposure to multiple forms of violence). Yet there is a global trend of refugee urbanization, and urban AGYW are at the nexus of violence disparities among adolescents, forcibly displaced persons, and slum dwellers. This study explored factors associated with young adulthood violence (> 16 years) (YAV) and intimate partner violence (IPV) among forcibly displaced AGYW in Kampala, Uganda.MethodsWe conducted a cross-sectional survey with forcibly displaced AGYW aged 16–24 from five informal settlement (slum) communities across Kampala (Kabalagala, Rubaga, Kansanga, Katwe, Nsambya) using peer network sampling. We assessed YAV (experienced at age 16 or above) (sexual, physical, emotional violence) and recent (past 12-month) IPV (physical, sexual, control violence). We conducted descriptive statistics, followed by multinomial logistic regression analyses to explore social ecological factors (e.g., intrapersonal: depression; interpersonal: sexual relationship power, community: food insecurity) associated with experiencing YAV and YAV polyvictimization, and IPV and IPV polyvictimization.ResultsOver half of participants (n = 333; mean age = 19.31; SD = 2.56, range = 16–24) reported YAV (n = 179; 53.7%) and 9.3% (n = 41) reported YAV polyvictimization. Most participants that were in an intimate relationship in the last 12 months (n = 200; 85.8%) reported IPV, among these, 45.5% reported one form of IPV and 54.5% reported IPV polyvictimization. In adjusted analyses, experiencing any YAV was significantly associated with: adolescent sexual and reproductive health (SRH) stigma; sexual relationship power; mobile app usage; depressive symptoms; childhood abuse; and childhood polyvictimization. In adjusted analyses YAV polyvictimization was associated with: depressive symptoms; childhood polyvictimization; sexual relationship power; and food insecurity. Recent IPV polyvictimization in adjusted analyses was associated with owning/using a mobile phone and depressive symptoms. Participants with higher sexual relationship power had lower odds of recent IPV polyvictimization.ConclusionFindings suggest that YAV and IPV polyvictimization require urgent attention among forcibly displaced AGYW in Kampala. Multi-level strategies are required to address intrapersonal e.g. (depression), interpersonal (e.g. childhood abuse, sexual relationship power) and community (e.g. adolescent SRH stigma, food insecurity) factors associated with experiencing violence. Future research can tailor approaches to advance health, agency and human rights among urban forcibly displaced AGYW.

Bisexual Stigma, Sexual Violence, and Sexual Health Among Bisexual and Other Plurisexual Women: A Cross-Sectional Survey Study

Bisexual women experience higher rates of sexual victimization relative to heterosexual and lesbian women, and worse sexual health outcomes. Though these health disparities are well documented in the literature, few empirical data have been published on what factors are driving these disparities. Further, research documenting sexual victimization and health of plurisexual (i.e., attracted to more than one gender) women group all participants as bisexual. We do not know whether these experiences are similar across subgroups of plurisexual women. The current study reports on data from a cross-sectional survey, analyzing the relationships between bisexual-specific stigma and sexual violence, as well as other sexual health outcomes, across a sexually diverse group of plurisexual participants. Findings indicate that bisexual stigma is a significant predictor of lifetime sexual violence (odds ratio [OR] = 1.99 , p = .015) and verbal coercion (OR = 2.60, p = .004), but not other outcomes. There are differences across sexual identity categories, with bisexual participants being less likely to report sexual violence and verbal coercion, and less likely to access sexually transmitted infection/human immunodeficiency syndrome testing, compared to other plurisexual groups. Our findings support that bisexual stigma is an important factor to consider in understanding sexual violence disparities experienced by bisexual and other plurisexual women.

Multilevel Logistic Regression Analysis of Intimate Partner Violence and Its Associated Factors in Ethiopia

Background: Intimate Partner Violence is a great public health issue globally. A related country level data lacks as existing literatures focus on specific geographic locations. We assessed the prevalence of intimate partner violence against women and associated factors in Ethiopia. Methods: A secondary data analysis was carried out based on the Ethiopia Demographic and Health Survey 2016 after getting online permission from Measure Demographic and Health Survey website. We employed both single and multilevel logistic regressions. Findings: Among ever-married women who have been participated in this study, 22.3 %, 7.6% and 6.1% of women have experienced emotional, sexual and physical violence respectively. The overall prevalence of intimate partner violence was found to be 25.6%. There was heterogeneity of intimate partner violence across regions in Ethiopia. Partner's desire for children, number of living children, women ever chewed chat, husband/partner drinks alcohol, respondent's occupation, number of other wives, current marital status, women smoking cigarettes and place of residence were significant determinants of intimate partner violence. Interpretation: About 1 in 4 ever married women in Ethiopia have experienced violence from their intimate partners. The government's effort towards elimination of violence against women should be well strengthened by addressing intimate partner violence disparity among regions in Ethiopia, and also taking in to account predictors of intimate partner violence in this study. Funding Statement: No funding received for this study. Declaration of Interests: The authors declare no competing interests. Ethics Approval Statement: The authors declared ethical approval not applicable.

Explaining the Gaps in White, Black, and Hispanic Violence since 1990

While group differences in violence have long been a key focus of sociological inquiry, we know comparatively little about the trends in criminal violence for whites, blacks, and Hispanics in recent decades. Combining geocoded death records with multiple data sources to capture the socioeconomic, demographic, and legal context of 131 of the largest metropolitan areas in the United States, this article examines the trends in racial/ethnic inequality in homicide rates since 1990. In addition to exploring long-established explanations (e.g., disadvantage), we also investigate how three of the most significant societal changes over the past 20 years, namely, rapid immigration, mass incarceration, and rising wealth inequality affect racial/ethnic homicide gaps. Across all three comparisons—white-black, white-Hispanic, and black-Hispanic—we find considerable convergence in homicide rates over the past two decades. Consistent with expectations, structural disadvantage is one of the strongest predictors of levels and changes in racial/ethnic violence disparities. In contrast to predictions based on strain theory, racial/ethnic wealth inequality has not increased disparities in homicide. Immigration, on the other hand, appears to be associated with declining white-black homicide differences. Consistent with an incapacitation/deterrence perspective, greater racial/ethnic incarceration disparities are associated with smaller racial/ethnic gaps in homicide.

The relationship between parental presence and child sexual violence: Evidence from thirteen countries in sub-Saharan Africa

There are compelling reasons to believe that orphans – many millions due to the AIDS epidemic – are more likely to be sexually victimized during childhood. Few studies have empirically investigated sexual violence disparities, and those that do suffer from methodological limitations and limited geographic scope. We used nationally representative data on female adolescents (15–17 years) from 13 countries in sub-Saharan Africa. We built multilevel logistic models to test for an association between the dependent variables (orphanhood and parental absence) and sexual violence, both within countries and pooled across all countries. Approximately 10% of adolescent girls reported past experiences of sexual violence; a third of those victimized were 14 years or younger at the time of their first forced encounter. Paternal orphaning (OR 1.36, p≤0.01), double orphaning (OR 1.47, p≤0.05), and paternal absence (OR 1.28; p≤0.05) were significantly associated with experiencing sexual violence in pooled analyses. Fewer findings reached significance within individual countries. Our findings suggest that the lack of a father in the home (due to death or absence) places girls at heightened risk for childhood sexual abuse; further research identifying pathways of vulnerability and resilience specific to this population is needed. Our findings also indicate that abuse often starts at an early age; thus promising programs should be adapted for younger age groups and rigorously tested.

Bullying and Victimization Among African American Adolescents: A Literature Review

Bullying among African American adolescents. This article reviews the current literature on bullying and victimization among African American adolescents. It highlights bullying and violence disparity among African American adolescents, associated risk and protective factors, and effects of bullying on adolescent health. Twenty-three English language peer-reviewed articles from CINAHL, Pubmed, and Psyc-INFO databases. African American adolescents have higher rates of bullying and victimization compared to other adolescent populations. This review found strong associations among bullying involvement, substance abuse, and family factors. Bullying also had a significant impact on adolescent health, particularly psychological symptoms and school performance.

Teenagers’ High Arrest Rates

The association of more crime with youthful age is widely accepted in social science. However, a literature search revealed no studies of the age-crime relationship that controlled for young ages’ economic disadvantage. This research gap is addressed using the California Criminal Justice Statistics Center’s arrest detail and Census poverty statistics for 2010. When poverty rates were controlled, younger and older ages’ violence disparities largely disappeared. Where teenagers and emerging adults display typical middle-aged demographics (two thirds non-Latino, White, or Asian, poverty levels under 10%), they display “middle-aged” violent crime rates; where ages 40 to 69 have typical teenage demographics (54% Black or Latino, 17% in poverty), they display “teenaged” violent crime levels. These findings challenge conventional theories associating violence with young age.

Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Structural Disadvantage and Crime: White, Black, and Hispanic Comparisons.

The objective of this study is to advance knowledge on racial/ethnic disparities in violence and the structural sources of those disparities. We do so by extending scarce and limited research exploring the relationship between race/ethnic gaps in disadvantage and differences in violent crime across groups. Using census place-level data from California and New York, we construct White, Black, and Hispanic "gap" measures that take as a given the existence of disparities across race/ethnic groups in structural disadvantage and crime and subsequently utilize seemingly unrelated regression models to assess the extent to which gaps in disadvantage are predictive of gaps in homicide and index violence. Our results suggest that (1) there is considerable heterogeneity in the size of White-Black, White-Hispanic, and Black-Hispanic gaps in structural disadvantage and crime and (2) that race/ethnic disparities in structural disadvantage, particularly poverty and female headship, are positively associated with race/ethnic gaps in homicide and index violence. In light of recent scholarship on the racial invariance hypothesis and on the relationship between structural inequality and crime, the current study demonstrates that disparities in disadvantage, particularly family structure and poverty, are important in driving racial and ethnic disparities in crime.