Risk Of Infectious Diseases Research Articles

The Impact of Socioeconomic Status, Perceived Threat and Healthism on Vaccine Hesitancy

The ideology of healthism and low perceptions of the threat of vaccine-preventable diseases may explain the positive link between socioeconomic status (SES) and vaccine hesitancy in high-income countries. The present study aimed to examine the effect of three measures of SES (education, income and family economic status), the perceived threat of infectious diseases and two dimensions of healthism (personal responsibility for own health and distrust in healthcare institutions) on vaccine hesitancy, adjusting for sociodemographic variables. A cross-sectional quantitative study was performed in 2019. Non-probability sampling was employed by sending invitations to respondents over the age of 18 to participate in the study. The snowball technique was used, employing e-mails and digital social networks (Facebook, Twitter and Instagram). Data from 661 respondents were collected via 1 ka.si, an online survey tool. Multivariate regression analysis indicated that vaccine hesitancy was significantly more likely to be expressed by women (β = 0.09; p < 0.001), high-income respondents (β = 0.09; p < 0.01), those who have lower perceptions of the threat of vaccine-preventable diseases (β = 0.39; p < 0.001) and those scoring high on two healthism measures (expressing high perceived control of their own health (β = 0.18; p < 0.001) and high distrust in the Slovenian healthcare system and institutions (β = 0.37; p < 0.001)). The findings indicate that among the examined predictors, low perceived threat of vaccine-preventable diseases and low trust in the healthcare system are among the strongest predictors of vaccine hesitancy among the Slovenian public. Policymakers, physicians and other healthcare workers should be especially attentive to the public’s and patients’ perceptions of the risk of infectious diseases and distrust in medical institutions, including during doctor–patient communication and through public health campaigns and policies.

Assessment of respiratory disease infection risk and natural ventilation intervention countermeasures in teaching spaces: A campus case study

The risk of indoor respiratory disease transmission can be significantly reduced through interventions that target the built environment. Several studies have successfully developed theoretical models to calculate the effects of built environment parameters on infection rates. However, current studies have mainly focused on calculating infection rate values and comparing pre- and post-optimization values, lacking a discussion of safe baseline values for infection rates with risk class classification. The purpose of this paper is to explore the design of interventions in the built environment to improve the ability of buildings to prevent virus transmission, with a university campus as an example. The study integrates the Wells-Riley model and basic reproduction number to identify teaching spaces with high infection risk on campus and proposes targeted intervention countermeasures based on the analysis of critical parameters. The results showed that teaching buildings with a grid layout pattern had a higher potential risk of infection under natural ventilation. By a diversity of building environment interventions designed, the internal airflow field of classrooms can be effectively organized, and the indoor virus concentration can be reduced. We can find that after optimizing the building mentioned above and environment intervention countermeasures, the maximum indoor virus infection probability can be reduced by 22.88%, and the basic reproduction number can be reduced by 25.98%, finally reaching a safe level of less than 1.0. In this paper, we support university campuses' respiratory disease prevention and control programs by constructing theoretical models and developing parametric platforms.

Habitat connectivity supports the local abundance of fire salamanders (Salamandra salamandra) but also the spread of Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans

ContextHabitat connectivity can stabilise animal populations by facilitating immigration and genetic exchange, but it increases the risk of infectious diseases being spread by hosts. Chytridiomycosis caused by Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans (Bsal) threatens European salamander diversity. The extent to which the connectivity of populations of fire salamanders (Salamandra salamandra) contributes to the spread of Bsal remains unclear.ObjectivesWe analysed the impact of habitat connectivity of fire salamanders on the spread of Bsal. Moreover, we show how local salamander abundance is associated with habitat connectivity over a five-year period.MethodsWe developed fire salamander habitat suitability models (HSMs) for the Eifel area (Germany), currently considered the core of the range of Bsal in Europe. Habitat models were used to calculate pairwise resistance between salamander occurrences to test whether Bsal presence and salamander abundance were associated with habitat connectivity.ResultsFire salamanders are widely distributed in the Eifel. Solid bedrock and topographic positioning were important predictors of stream suitability as breeding habitats, while deciduous forests and grassland cover determined overall fire salamander habitat suitability along with breeding habitat suitability. Bsal-positive salamander occurrences were better-connected than Bsal-negative or untested occurrences. Nevertheless, fire salamander larvae were more abundant in well-connected sites.ConclusionThe connection of salamander populations by suitable habitat seems to support local salamander abundance while facilitating the spread of Bsal. In situ conservation measures counteracting host species connectivity to interrupt Bsal transmission pathways must be implemented with caution, as they may weaken the demographic advantages of connectivity.

COVID-19 Vaccine Booster Hesitancy in Malaysia: A Web-Based Cross-Sectional Study

Vaccination is a key public health strategy that is known to be effective in mitigating the risk of infection and severe disease. However, in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic, the percentage (<50%) of Malaysians who have received a booster for the COVID-19 vaccine has remained stagnant over a year. This study aimed to determine the prevalence of and the factors associated with hesitancy toward the second dose of booster for the COVID-19 vaccine. A web-based cross-sectional study was conducted from August to November 2022. The Oxford Vaccine Hesitancy Scale was used to assess the hesitancy toward the second dose of booster for the COVID-19 vaccine. Simple and multiple factors logistic regressions were used to determine the predictors of hesitancy. A p-value less than 0.05 was considered to be statistically significant. Data from 798 respondents were included in the analysis. The prevalence of hesitancy toward the second booster of the COVID-19 vaccine was 26.7%. The predictors of second-booster hesitancy were older age (AOR = 1.040, 95 CI = 1.022, 1.058), having received the third dose (first booster) because of instruction by the government (AOR = 2.125, 95% CI = 1.380, 3.274), concern about serious long term side effects of the vaccine (AOR = 4.010, 95% CI = 2.218, 7.250), and opinions of close friends and immediate family members that the booster is harmful (AOR = 2.201, 95% CI = 1.280, 3.785). Conversely, factors that appear to reduce vaccine booster hesitancy were acceptance of the third dose due to the high number of cases and the increasing rate of infection (AOR = 0.548, 95% CI = 0.317, 0.947), the belief that the vaccine will decrease the risk of getting the infection (AOR = 0.491, 95% CI = 0.277, 0.870), and opinions of close friends and immediate family members that the booster is helpful (AOR = 0.479, 95% CI = 0.273, 0.840). In conclusion, more than one-fifth of Malaysians were hesitant to take the second booster of the COVID-19 vaccine. This suggests that appropriate steps that increase vaccine acceptance, taking into consideration the findings of the present study, are needed to address this issue and to foster more positive attitudes toward vaccination. The survey was available in three main languages but limited to people with internet access; hence, it would likely be biased toward younger adults and social media users and exclude those with limited or no internet access, in particular older people. Therefore, the results are not representative of the Malaysian population at large and caution should be exercised when interpreting the findings.

Accounting for historical injustices in mathematical models of infectious disease transmission: An analytic overview

Differences in infectious disease risk, acquisition, and severity arise from intersectional systems of oppression and resulting historical injustices that shape individual behavior and circumstance. We define historical injustices as distinct events and policies that arise out of intersectional systems of oppression. We view historical injustices as a medium through which structural forces affect health both directly and indirectly, and are thus important to study in the context of infectious disease disparities. In this critical analysis we aim to highlight the importance of incorporating historical injustices into mathematical models of infectious disease transmission and provide context on the methodologies to do so. We offer two illustrations of elements of model building (i.e., parameterization, validation and calibration) that can allow for a better understanding of health disparities in infectious disease outcomes. Mathematical models that do not recognize the historical forces that underlie infectious disease dynamics inevitably lead to the individualization of our focus and the recommendation of untenable individual-behavioral prescriptions to address the burden of infectious disease.

Flood events change the occurrence and burden of diarrhea among people in Thua Thien Hue province, Vietnam in 2016

People in flooded areas are exposed to the risk of infectious diseases like gastroenteritis via contact with contaminated floodwater. The burden of such diseases has often been estimated using DALYs based on the severity and duration of the disease symptoms but not for psychology. We hypothesized that people in developing countries hit by floods frequently have higher stress related to flood-related diseases than others. This study aimed to describe the psychological impact of floods into the health burden of diarrhea in flood-prone areas in Thua Thien Hue province, Vietnam in 2016. A cross sectional study was conducted from August to September 2016 in Thua Thien Hue province to ask about their feeling about flood-caused diarrhea compared with common diseases which are leading causes of morbidity in the region. The results showed that the participants felt that some diseases such as diarrhea happened more frequently during and after floods. People in non-flooded areas felt that diarrhea and cough that happened more frequently during and after floods were significantly higher than in other areas. The severity/uncomfortableness of diarrhea that participants reported compared with each common disease was significantly different between people in flooded and non-flooded areas. No significant difference between the newly modified disability weight of diseases that participants in flooded and non-flooded areas, felt happened more frequently related to floods. The feeling to diarrhea disease was not affected by floods. A new method to incorporate the psychological impacts of floods into the burden of normal diarrhea was also proposed. Our findings suggest that floods changed the feelings of people in flooded areas about diarrhea by accepting this disease.

A Cross-Country Analysis of the Combined Influence of Social Media Use and Perceived Social Media Networks on Pandemic Communicative Responses

ABSTRACT This study examines how social media (SM) use is related to human responses to emerging infectious disease risks in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic via an online survey conducted in the United States and Taiwan. Results showed that SM use was related to different types of communicative responses (information seeking, interpersonal discussion, and rumor correction) directly and indirectly through cognitive and affective responses (risk perception, responsibility attribution, and negative and positive emotions). The indirect relationships between SM use and communicative responses through these cognitive and affective responses were moderated by perceived SM network structures. In particular, the mediating influence of negative emotions on communicative responses was associated with perceived SM network homogeneity, while that of positive emotions was related to perceived SM network centrality. Furthermore, responsibility attribution drove Taiwanese SM users’ communicative responses, whereas the interrelated influence of positive emotions and perceived SM network centrality shaped American SM users’ communicative responses.

CFD Simulations of Ventilation and Interunit Dispersion in Dormitory Complex: A Case Study of Epidemic Outbreak in Shanghai.

Since the beginning of March 2022, a new round of COVID-19 outbreaks in Shanghai has led to a sharp increase in the number of infected people. It is important to identify possible pollutant transmission routes and predict potential infection risks for infectious diseases. Therefore, this study investigated the cross-diffusion of pollutants caused by natural ventilation, including external windows and indoor ventilation windows, under three wind directions in a densely populated building environment with the CFD method. In this study, CFD building models were developed based on an actual dormitory complex and surrounding buildings under realistic wind conditions to reproduce the airflow fields and transmission paths of pollutants. This paper adopted the Wells-Riley model to assess the risk of cross-infection. The biggest risk of infection was when a source room was located on the windward side, and the risk of infection in other rooms on the same side as the source room was large in the windward direction. When pollutants were released from room 8, north wind resulted in the highest concentration of pollutants in room 28, reaching 37.8%. This paper summarizes the transmission risks related to the indoor and outdoor environments of compact buildings.

JAK inhibitors: high risk of infectious disease in patients with RA

JAK inhibitors: high risk of infectious disease in patients with RA

Causal Associations Between Tobacco, Alcohol Use and Risk of Infectious Diseases: A Mendelian Randomization Study.

The causal effects of smoking and alcohol use on the risk of infectious diseases are unclear, and it is hard investigate them in an observational study due to the potential confounding factors. The aim of this study was to use Mendelian randomization (MR) techniques to assess the causalities between smoking, alcohol use and risk of infectious diseases. Univariable and multivariable MR analyses were performed using genome-wide association data for the age of initiation of regular smoking (AgeSmk, N = 341,427), smoking initiation (SmkInit, N = 1,232,091), cigarettes per day (CigDay, N = 337,334), lifetime smoking (LifSmk, N = 462,690), drinks per week (DrnkWk, N = 941,280), sepsis (N = 486,484), pneumonia (N = 486,484), upper respiratory tract infection (URTI, N = 486,484) and urinary tract infection (UTI, N = 486,214) among individuals of European ancestry. Independent genetic variants that were significantly (P < 5 × 10-8) associated with each exposure were considered as instruments. The inverse-variance-weighted method was used in the primary analysis, which was followed by a series of sensitivity analyses. Genetically predicted SmkInit was associated with an increased risk of sepsis (OR 1.353, 95% CI 1.079-1.696, P = 0.009), pneumonia (OR 1.770, 95% CI 1.464-2.141, P = 3.8 × 10-9) and UTI (OR 1.445, 95% CI 1.184-1.764, P = 3 × 10-4). Moreover, genetically predicted CigDay was associated with a higher risk of sepsis (OR 1.403, 95% CI 1.037-1.898, P = 0.028) and pneumonia (OR 1.501, 95% CI 1.167-1.930, P = 0.00156). Furthermore, genetically predicted LifSmk was associated with an increased risk of sepsis (OR 2.200, 95% CI 1.583-3.057, P = 2.63 × 10-6), pneumonia (OR 3.462, 95% CI 2.798-4.285, P = 3.28 × 10-30), URTI (OR 2.523, 95% CI 1.315-4.841, P = 0.005) and UTI (OR 2.036, 95% CI 1.585-2.616, P = 3.0 × 10-8). However, there was no significant causal evidence for genetically predicted DrnkWk in sepsis, pneumonia, URTI or UTI. Multivariable MR analyses and sensitivity analyses showed that the above results for causal association estimations were robust. In this MR study, we demonstrated the causal association between tobacco smoking and risk of infectious diseases. However, no evidence was found to support causality between alcohol use and the risk of infectious diseases.

“FACTORS AFFECTING INITIATION OF BREASTFEEDING IN LBW AND VLBW BABIES; GROWTH OUTCOMES AT 6 MONTHS OF CORRECTED AGE WITH REFERENCE TO KMC”

LBW infants has higher risk of early infectious disease and growth retardation during infancy and childhood. Advances in NICU in perinatal care has improved survival of LBWto prevent long-term complications. Feeding practices like exclusive breastfeeding along with KMC support child. The objective is to determine factors affecting initiation of breastfeeding in LBW, VLBW babies and describe role of KMC regarding growth at 6 months of corrected age. Methodology:This is prospective study conducted on infants admitted at NICU and followed up for 6months. Parameters like weight, length and head circumference were done to all admitted babies in NICU. KMC was given one group. Results: In our study, 90 babies divided as two groups, Group A (45 babies)- KMC is given; Group B (45 babies)-KMC not given. Mean Birth weight in Group A(1.77kg) and Group B (1.58kg) respectively. Main factors affecting initiation of breastfeeding in babies were LSCS (63.3% and 48.9%), RDS (55.6% and 38.9%) respectively. Rates of exclusive breastfeeding is signicantly increased in Group A (92.2%) than Group B (72.2%). At 6 months of corrected gestational age, mean weight in Group A (5.68kg) is signicantly more than in Group B (4.88kg). Conclusion: LBW babies are more prone for growth retardation, can be prevented by early initiation of breastfeeding and good newborn care. Factors affecting initiation of breastfeeding in LBWand VLBWbabies are LSCS, RDS. KMC care helps to increase exclusive breastfeeding rates and improve growth outcome

Diabetes and infectious disease mortality in Mexico City

IntroductionAlthough higher risks of infectious diseases among individuals with diabetes have long been recognized, the magnitude of these risks is poorly described, particularly in lower income settings. This study sought...

Possible threat of the Omicron subvariant BF.7 to FIH Hockey World Cup 2023 in particular and the South-East Asia Region in general.

Possible threat of the Omicron subvariant BF.7 to FIH Hockey World Cup 2023 in particular and the South-East Asia Region in general.

FREQUENCY OF TRANSFUSION-TRANSMISSIBLE INFECTIOUS DISEASES AMONG BLOOD DONORS AT AKHTER SAEED TRUST HOSPITAL LAHORE, PAKISTAN

Background: Blood transfusion is an essential lifesaving treatment. The unsafe blood transfusion practices are one of the reasons of spreading transfusion-transmissible infections among individuals. It is necessary to screen the all donated blood units for HBV, HCV, HIV, VDRL, and MP.&#x0D; Aims: This aim of this study was to evaluate the burden of transfusion-transmissible infectious diseases caused by blood transfusions among donors.&#x0D; Materials &amp; Methodology: It was a prospective observational study which included the 9114 blood donors who attended the Akhtar Saeed Trust Hospital Lahore from January 2020 to September 2022. The informed consent was taken from all blood donors. 3-5 ml of venous sample was drawn by using aseptic technique from blood donors on enrollment. Screening of blood donors was done by Chemiluminescence immunoassay (Maglumi-800) for HBV, HCV, HIV and VDRL. The MP was confirmed by peripheral blood picture on slide. According to the automation kit manufacturer’s guidelines, cut-off value for reporting positive results of HBV, HCV, HIV and VDRL was calculated. Data was analyzed by using SPSS version 25.0.&#x0D; Results: The mean age was 27.79 + 12.1 years. The numbers of volunteer and replacement donors were 961 (10.54%) and 8153 (89.45%) respectively. The total numbers of positive donors for transfusion transmissible infectious diseases were 591/9114 (6.49%). The seropositivity was found to be 170/9114 (1.86%) for HBV, 324/9114 (3.55%) for HCV, 33/9114 (0.36%) for HIV, 64/9114 (0.70%) for VDRL, and 0/9114 (0.0%) for MP respectively.&#x0D; Conclusion: There is currently a low risk of transfusion transmissible infectious diseases but the availability of safe blood is contingent on screening tests and appropriate donor selection.&#x0D; &#x0D;

Urban living.

Delhi, truly, is one of the world's great mega-cities. It's fascinating and infuriating, enchanting and exasperating and much more besides. City dwelling brings its own advantages and disadvantages for health and healthcare access, and if you want to read more the WHO fact sheet on urban health is a good place to start (https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/urban-health#:~:text=Noncommunicable%20diseases%20like%20heart%20disease,walking%2C%20cycling%20and%20active%20living.) As a respiratory clinician, perhaps our first thoughts are around air quality. The majority of those living in urban areas breathe polluted air, and without access to adequate green spaces. Air pollution affects cardiovascular health too. Access to sanitation and clean water may be limited, increasing the prevalence of infectious as well as chronic non-communicable diseases (NCDs). COVID illustrated the potential for spread of infectious diseases among those living in densely populated areas, especially where those populations are systematically disadvantaged for other reasons—migrant workers and immigrants, for example. The risk of injuries and violence is higher in cities too—both road traffic accidents and inter-personal violence. Cities built around road transport make it hard to exercise safely, affecting the risk of obesity, diabetes and poor mental health. The WHO calls the risk of NCDs, infectious diseases and injuries in urban areas a ‘triple threat’. By 2050, more than two thirds of the world's population will live in urban areas, with all the attendant possibilities of economic benefit. However, as major consumers of energy, the future of cities and planetary health is closely intertwined. At its best, healthcare in mega-cities is world class, but generally it is not and variation in access to healthcare, and the quality of that care are most marked in our cities. I recognize this in London. What to do about this? The WHO recommends a ‘strategic, multisectoral and coordinated’ approach to urban health. Recognizing the need for novel solutions the Global Alliance for Chronic Disease has an on-going research call on NCD prevention in cities (https://www.gacd.org/funding/current-call-for-applications/ncd-prevention-in-cities). Meanwhile, what you can do to lobby for better environments and healthcare access where you live and work? And have you considered working away from home to learn and share knowledge? And never turn down an opportunity to visit Delhi—you'll love it. None declared.

Vector communities under global change may exacerbate and redistribute infectious disease risk.

Vector-borne parasites may be transmitted by multiple vector species, resulting in an increased risk of transmission, potentially at larger spatial scales compared to any single vector species. Additionally, the different abilities of patchily distributed vector species to acquire and transmit parasites will lead to varying degrees of transmission risk. Investigation of how vector community composition and parasite transmission change over space due to variation in environmental conditions may help to explain current patterns in diseases but also informs our understanding of how patterns will change under climate and land-use change. We developed a novel statistical approach using a multi-year, spatially extensive case study involving a vector-borne virus affecting white-tailed deer transmitted by Culicoides midges. We characterized the structure of vector communities, established the ecological gradient controlling change in structure, and related the ecology and structure to the amount of disease reporting observed in host populations. We found that vector species largely occur and replace each other as groups, rather than individual species. Moreover, community structure is primarily controlled by temperature ranges, with certain communities being consistently associated with high levels of disease reporting. These communities are essentially composed of species previously undocumented as potential vectors, whereas communities containing putative vector species were largely associated with low levels, or even absence, of disease reporting. We contend that the application of metacommunity ecology to vector-borne infectious disease ecology can greatly aid the identification of transmission hotspots and an understanding of the ecological drivers of parasite transmission risk both now and in the future.

Where One Health Meets Food Systems Teaching and Learning: Expanding Skillsets for Food System Transformation

Abstract Food systems are often described as the single biggest contributor to complex global health challenges for people, animals, plants, and the environment through pollution, ecosystem degradation, greenhouse gas emissions, land and water use, chemical use, unhealthy and unsafe diets, animal welfare concerns, infectious disease risks, and biodiversity loss. The collaborative, multisectoral, transdisciplinary and systems-focused nature of One Health allows it to make important contributions to these problems by, for example, mitigating disease across animal and human populations or reducing antimicrobial resistance. In this case study, we explore how the combination of food systems literacy and One Health skills can give postgraduate students a valuable foundation to engage in further opportunities for One Health in food systems and thereby contribute to positive change. Areas for potential expansion of One Health in food systems are presented. The example of the Interdisciplinary Food Systems Teaching and Learning (IFSTAL) programme and the MSc course One Health: ecosystems, humans and animals are used to discuss the value of the combination of One Health and food systems skills. © The Authors 2023

Respiratory aerosol particle emission and simulated infection risk is greater during indoor endurance than resistance exercise

Pathogens such as severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus type 2 (SARS-CoV-2), influenza, and rhinoviruses are transmitted by airborne aerosol respiratory particles that are exhaled by infectious subjects. We have previously reported that the emission of aerosol particles increases on average 132-fold from rest to maximal endurance exercise. The aims of this study are to first measure aerosol particle emission during an isokinetic resistance exercise at 80% of the maximal voluntary contraction until exhaustion, second to compare aerosol particle emission during a typical spinning class session versus a three-set resistance training session. Finally, we then used this data to calculate the risk of infection during endurance and resistance exercise sessions with different mitigation strategies. During a set of isokinetic resistance exercise, aerosol particle emission increased 10-fold from 5,400 ± 1,200 particles/min at rest to 59,000 ± 69,900 particles/min during a set of resistance exercise. We found that aerosol particle emission per minute is on average 4.9-times lower during a resistance training session than during a spinning class. Using this data, we determined that the simulated infection risk increase during an endurance exercise session was sixfold higher than during a resistance exercise session when assuming one infected participant in the class. Collectively, this data helps to select mitigation measures for indoor resistance and endurance exercise classes at times where the risk of aerosol-transmitted infectious disease with severe outcomes is high.

Optical coherence tomography for in vivo longitudinal monitoring of artificial dermal scaffold.

Artificial dermal scaffold (ADS) has undergone rapid development and been increasingly used for treating skin wound in clinics due to its good biocompatibility, controllable degradation, and low risk of disease infection. To obtain good treatment efficacy, ADS needs to be monitored longitudinally during the treatment process. For example, scaffold-tissue fit, cell in-growth, vascular regeneration, and scaffold degradation are the key properties to be inspected. However, to date, there are no effective, real-time, and noninvasive techniques to meet the requirement of the scaffold monitoring above. In this study, we propose to use optical coherence tomography (OCT) to monitor ADS in vivo through three-dimensional imaging. A swept source OCT system with a handheld probe was developed for in vivo skin imaging. Moreover, a cell in-growth, vascular regeneration, and scaffold degradation rate (IRDR) was defined with the volume reduction rate of the scaffold's collagen sponge layer. To measure the IRDR, a semiautomatic image segmentation algorithm was designed based on U-Net to segment the collagen sponge layer of the scaffold from OCT images. The results show that the scaffold-tissue fit can be clearly visualized under OCT imaging. The IRDR can be computed based on the volume of the segmented collagen sponge layer. It is observed that the IRDR appeared to a linear function of the time and in addition, the IRDR varied among different skin parts. Overall, it can be concluded that OCT has a good potential to monitor ADS in vivo. This can help guide the clinicians to control the treatment with ADS to improve the therapy.

Immunity system dysfunction caused by insomnia and methods of treatment

Introduction: Sleep is a very important part of human health. Research over the past several years has shown that sleep disorders such as insomnia can affect the risk of infectious diseases. This review describes the immunocompromising mechanisms of insomnia and the consequences associated with this disorder. This review also includes treatment methods. Material and methods: The work was based on the articles published in PubMed, medical books and websites. Results: Insomnia has an influence in the markers of inflammation and there are few methods of treating insomnia. Conclusions: Sleep influences the two primary effector systems which in turn regulate immune responses. Sleep disturbance like insomnia increases the risk of infectious diseases. Treatment can lower the markers of inflammation and helps relieve the symptoms of insomnia.