Disease In Camelids Research Articles

Clinicopathological Investigations Among Recurrent Camelpox Outbreaks in Omanis’ Arabian Camels (Camelus dromedarius)

Camelpox remains a widespread viral disease in camelids, with socioeconomic relevance. The present study explored the hematological, biochemical, and histopathological alterations in dromedary-racing camels from the North of Oman infected with camelpox virus diagnosed by real-time PCR. Blood and skin samples were collected from camels with clinical signs and skin lesions (n=4) and from healthy camels (n=3) from 10 different camel herds. The results indicated that the infected camels showed clinical signs, including pyrexia, lacrimation, nasal mucus discharge, affixed and swollen eyelids, emaciation, and pimples on the skin of the head, legs, and abdomen. Hemoglobin, hematocrit, and platelets were significantly greater, with a significant reduction in leukocyte and lymphocyte counts in infected camels than in healthy camels. Infected camels had higher CK and creatinine levels and hepatic-related metabolites, including AST, ALP, AST, GGT, and LDH, than the apparently healthy camels. Histopathological examination of skin scab samples revealed ballooning degeneration of epidermal cells in the presence of typical large eosinophilic intracytoplasmic inclusion bodies and suppurative dermatitis following secondary bacterial infection in all examined infected camels. Camelpox viral DNA was detected using real-time PCR in the blood and skin samples of all infected camels. These findings in dromedary-racing camels associated with a molecular diagnosis of camelpox are described for the first time in the Sultanate of Oman. Therefore, further studies are warranted.

Brucellatransmission from domestic and wild animals to dromedary camel: Diagnostic methods and zoonotic threats – A review

AbstractThe present review discusses the transmission risk factors of camel (Camelus dromedarius) brucellosis in the limits of domestic and wild interfaces and zoonotic threats. The median position of the dromedary’s life between wild and the domestic areas seems to increase the risks of brucellosis transmission, compared to other receptive domestic ruminants. In arid environments, canids, lagomorphs, rodents, and wild boars are potential reservoirs ofBrucellaspp. Dromedary camels raised according to a periurban breeding system are often in direct or indirect contact with wild animals, domestic animals, and humans. Constraints of brucellosis detection and control in wild animals, especially in developing countries, hamper preventing disease in camelids and related occupational categories. A total eradication of animal and human brucellosis, in developing countries, is faced by the difficulty of applying quarantine periods for suspected animals, the lack of reliable diagnostic tools, and the impossibility of controlling animals at the common grazing lands, livestock markets, and transboundary areas. In developing countries, the informal she-camel milk collection, the periurban camel breeding, and the shortage in the technological processing and the pasteurization of she-camel milk play a key role in brucellosis zoonotic transmission.Veterinarians should have more initiative in brucellosis control in both domestic and wildlife animals.

Presentation, Clinical Pathology Abnormalities, and Identification of Gastrointestinal Parasites in Camels (Camelus bactrianus and Camelus dromedarius) Presenting to Two North American Veterinary Teaching Hospitals. A Retrospective Study: 1980-2020.

Old World Camelids (OWC) represent two species (Camelus bactrianus and Camelus dromedarius) with increasing numbers in North America. Gastrointestinal (GI) parasitism is a major cause of clinical disease in camelids and leads to significant economic impacts. Literature reporting on clinical parasitism of camels is localized to India, Africa, and the Middle East, with limited information available on OWCs in North America. Objectives of this study were to report on clinical presentation and diagnostic findings in Camelus bactrianus and Camelus dromedarius with GI parasitism and provide a comparative analysis between geographic regions. Medical records of OWCs presenting to two veterinary teaching hospitals (of the University of Tennessee and University of Wisconsin) were evaluated. Thirty-one camels including 11 Bactrians and six dromedaries (14 species not recorded) were included for the clinical component of this study, reporting on signalment, presenting complaint, and clinical pathology. Anorexia, weight loss, and diarrhea were the most common presenting complaint. Clinical pathology findings included eosinophilia, hypoproteinemia, and hyponatremia. For the second component of this study, a total of 77 fecal parasite examination results were evaluated for parasite identification and regional variation. Trichuris, Capillaria, Strongyloides, Nematodirus, Dictyocaulus, Moniezia, and protozoan parasites (Eimeria, Cryptosporidium, Giardia) were recorded. Strongyle-type eggs predominated, followed by Trichuris and Eimeria spp. There was a statistically significant variation in prevalence of coccidia between the two regions, with fecal examinations from Tennessee more likely to contain Eimeria (P = 0.0193). Clinicians treating camels in North America should recognize anorexia, weight loss, and diarrhea combined with clinical pathologic changes of hypoproteinemia, eosinophilia and hyponatremia as possible indications of GI parasitism. Clinicians should also consider the potential for regional variation to exist for GI parasites of camels in different areas of North America.

Documented neurological diseases in camelids

Neurological disease has a wide range of causes in llamas and alpacas, but is most often related to infectious (viral or bacterial), metabolic, toxic and traumatic causes. As a consequence, the neurological manifestation of a systemic illness has to be differentiated from conditions that principally affect the peripheral or central nervous system. Subtle differences in the clinical manifestation and pathophysiology of neurological diseases do exist between camelids and other species. However, diagnostic tools similar to those used in other species are often essential to establish an etiological diagnosis. For example, while spinal radiography may be sufficient to identify traumatic conditions and bony lysis or sclerosis in animals with advanced degenerative vertebral disease, computed tomography or magnetic resonance imaging may be required to better evaluate patients with subtle changes.

Retrospective study of central nervous system lesions and association with Parelaphostrongylus species by histology and specific nested polymerase chain reaction in domestic camelids and wild ungulates.

Formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded tissues from elk (Cervus elaphus), goats, and camelids with case histories and lesions suggestive of Parelaphostrongylus tenuis were examined by histology to characterize lesions that could aid in definitively diagnosing P. tenuis infection. Additionally, sections of paraffin-embedded tissue were used in a nested polymerase chain reaction (nPCR) using Parelaphostrongylus-specific primers to determine how PCR results corresponded with histological findings. Histological changes in brain and spinal cord consisted of linear tracks of hemorrhage; tracks or perivascular accumulations of hemosiderin-laden macrophages; acute foci of axonal degeneration and/or linear glial scars; and perivascular, parenchymal, or meningeal accumulations of eosinophils and/or lymphocytes and plasma cells. Of the 43 samples with histologic lesions consistent with neural larval migrans, 19 were PCR positive; however, only 8 were confirmed Parelaphostrongylus by DNA sequencing. Additionally, 1 goat was identified with a protostrongylid that had a 97% identity to both Parelaphostrongylus odocoilei and a protostrongylid nematode from pampas deer (Ozotoceros bezoarticus celer) from Argentina. None of the histologic lesions individually or in combination correlated statistically to positive molecular tests for the nematode. The results indicate that it is possible to extract Parelaphostrongylus DNA from formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded tissue, but extended fixation presumably can cause DNA crosslinking. Nested PCR provides another diagnostic tool to identify the cause of neurologic disease in camelids and elk with histologic lesions consistent with neural larval migrans. Furthermore, potential novel protostrongylid DNA was detected from a goat with lesions consistent with P. tenuis infection, suggesting that other neurotropic Parelaphostrongylus species may occur locally.

Evaluation of the specificity of intradermal tuberculin and serological tests for diagnosis of tuberculosis in alpaca (Vicugna pacos) and llama (Lama glama) herds under field conditions in Peru

Diagnosis of tuberculosis (TB) in camelids is still a challenge mainly due to the lack of standardised diagnostic assays and the limitations regarding sensitivity (Se) and specificity (Sp) of the...

Diseases in camelids 2. From birth to weaning

With the number of South American camelids in the UK increasing, there is a need for veterinary surgeons to familiarise themselves with anatomy, physiology and common presentations of the different...

Diseases in camelids 1. Common presentations

An increasing number of practitioners in the UK are being asked to see South American camelids (mainly llamas and alpacas). There are now just under 28,000 registered alpacas in the...

Measurement of cardiac troponin I utilizing a point of care analyzer in healthy alpacas

Background Myocardial disease in camelids is poorly characterized. Nutritional (selenium deficiency) and toxic (ionophore toxicity) myocardial disease have been reported in camelids. Diagnosis and management of these and other myocardial diseases might be enhanced by evaluating cardiac troponin I (cTnI) concentrations. No information about cTnI reference intervals in camelids is currently available. Hypothesis/Objectives (A) To determine cTnI concentrations obtained using a point of care i-STAT ®1 analyzer (Heska Corporation) in healthy alpacas; (B) to compare alpaca cTnI concentrations between heparinized whole blood and plasma samples and between 2 different storage conditions (4 °C for 24 h or −80 °C for 30 days); (C) to examine assay reproducibility using the i-STAT ®1. Animals, materials and methods 23 healthy alpacas were evaluated. Blood and plasma samples were analyzed by the i-STAT ®1 within 1 h of collection. Aliquots of plasma were stored at either 4 °C for 24 h or −80 °C for 30 days, and then analyzed. Assay reproducibility was determined by comparing 2 plasma or whole blood cTnI concentrations measured on the same sample over a 10 min period. Results Analyzer-specific plasma cTnI concentrations in clinically normal alpacas had a median of <0.02 ng/mL (range: <0.02 ng/mL to 0.07 ng/mL). Plasma and whole blood concentrations showed good agreement. Storage did not affect cTnI concentrations ( p > 0.75). Plasma cTnI concentrations had coefficient of repeatability of 0.02 ng/mL. Conclusions The i-STAT ®1 can measure cTnI in alpacas on both plasma and whole blood and provides similar values for both samples. Storage at 4 °C for 24 h or −80 °C for 30 days does not affect estimates of plasma cTnI. Evaluation of cTnI might be of value in assessing cardiac disease in this species.

Neurological Disease in Camelids

The presentation of neurological disease in camelids, as in other species, varies widely. There are many different causes of neurological signs and the clinician must be aware that metabolic and musculoskeletal disease can also present with neurological signs. These conditions must be differentiated from those of true neurological origin by careful history taking, physical examination and use of appropriate diagnostic tests.

Foot-and-mouth disease in camelids: a review

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) in South American camelids, in dromedaries and Bactrians is reviewed. Recent well-executed experimental studies in New World camels indicate that, although the llama and alpaca can be infected with FMD virus (FMDV) by direct contact, they are not very susceptible and do not pose a risk in transmitting FMD to susceptible animal species. They do not become FMDV carriers. Reports on FMD in dromedaries are, however, conflicting. Serological investigations in Africa and the United Arab Emirates (UAE) on thousands of camel sera were negative and experimental infections have been conducted on only a few dromedaries with one serotype and in one country. The design and execution of most of these experiments were poor and therefore the conclusions are questionable. From these investigations, it seems that dromedaries can contract the disease after experimental infection and through close contact with FMD diseased livestock, but do not present a risk in transmitting FMD to susceptible animals. They do not become FMDV carriers. Recent reports from Mongolia describe similar FMD lesions in Bactrian camels. However, so far no samples have tested positive for FMD. To clarify the situation in Bactrians, samples from suspected clinical cases should be tested because other viral vesicular diseases cannot be distinguished from FMD. Thus, further research on the epidemiology of FMD in camelids is necessary. This would include large-scale serological investigations and experimental infections with different FMD serotypes in connection with susceptible contact animals. The Office International des Épizooties (OIE) Code chapter on FMD includes camelids as being susceptible species to FMD, giving the impression that they are similar to cattle, sheep, goats and pigs in their potential involvement in the epidemiology of FMD. This is clearly not the case, and this issue should be re-addressed by the relevant authorities.

Husbandry and diseases of camelids.

Camels of the Old World and the New World have provided the indigenous human population with meat, milk, fibre and fuel, also serving as beasts of burden to carry loads, for millennia. With the advent of motorized vehicles, the use of camelids became obsolete except in isolated situations. The numbers of camelids diminished dramatically. A reversal of that trend is now occurring, with a recognition that these animals still function in their respective environments better than any other species of livestock. Camelids have always been popular animals in zoos. Camels and two of the South American camelids are domestic animals which adapt well to contained management. They have a unique ability to obtain nourishment from harsh forages. Their reproductive physiology is different from that of any other livestock species.

Ophthalmology

Review of the limited literature on camelid eyes suggests they are anatomically similar to those of domestic livestock species, except they lack meibomian glands and have iridial folds (rather than corpora nigra). The microbial flora of the healthy camelid conjunctival sac also appears to be similar to those of domestic livestock and pets, except that no Mycoplasma have been isolated from camelids. Ocular diseases for which camelids are presented to veterinarians are numerous and varied. The most frequently presented conditions are ocular trauma and congenital abnormalities. Trauma to cornea, conjunctiva, eyelids, and sclera has been reported. Therapies for these injuries are the same as for other animals. Most congenital abnormalities are cataracts and optic nerve colobomas, but congenital eyelid defects, conjunctival cysts, and multiple ocular defects have been reported. Although these conditions are not demonstrably hereditary, breeding of animals with congenital ocular defects is strongly discouraged. Intraocular inflammatory diseases are seen commonly in camelids. Uveitis and chorioretinitis may cause permanent visual loss, usually with no indication of cause. Equine herpesvirus 1 has been isolated from camelids with severe ocular inflammation and is a known cause of chorioretinitis and neurologic abnormalities. Systemic aspergillosis causes severe chorioretinitis in alpacas. More research is needed to improve our understanding of ocular physiology and pathology in camelids. Genetic studies also are needed to establish hereditary patterns of ocular maldevelopment. Additional information from researchers and practitioners should improve our ability to recognize and treat ocular disease in camelids.

Detection of antibodies to mycoplasmas in South American camelids

Indirect haemagglutination tests on sera from 757 South American camelids (alpacas, llamas and vicunas) carried out in the Andean region of Peru, revealed evidence of exposure mainly to Mycoplasma mycoides subspecies mycoides LC. The incidence of detectable antibodies to this mycoplasma in 554 alpacas was 5·0 per cent and in 141 llamas 15·6 per cent. Antibody to Mycoplasma capricolum and the F38 biotype was detected in 0·9 per cent and 0·2 per cent of alpacas, respectively. In a group of 62 vicunas only one reactor to both M m mycoides LC and M capricolum was observed. No reactors to M mycoides subspecies capri or M agalactiae were observed in the flocks examined. Antibodies to mycoplasma were also detected in nine out of 10 goat flocks tested. The incidence of antibodies to M m mycoides LC was 13·8 per cent, 3·8 per cent for M capricolum and 1·8 per cent for the F38 biotype. In a group of 110 sheep, six reactors (5·5 per cent) to M m mycoides LC and one (0·9 per cent) to F38 were observed. The implications of these results are discussed in relation to the involvement of mycoplasmas in existing disease in camelids in Peru.