Discrimination In Sports Research Articles

Understanding and challenging discrimination in sports

Understanding and challenging discrimination in sports

Sport pedagogy and feminism: what is known and what is missing? Findings from a scoping review

ABSTRACT Background Worldwide, to play sports is proclaimed a right. Yet its sexist practices insist on cultivating a hegemonic gender culture to keep ‘others’ away and deprive them from its potential educational benefits. Sport feminisms have been vocal on the gender oppressions operated in the field and have claimed pedagogy has a role to play in social transformation through a liberating education. Purpose We aimed at analyzing the academic production about sport pedagogy and feminism published in articles globally, to answer when, where how and by whom the studies were developed; what is known and what is missing. Method We conducted a scoping review searching for sport pedagogy and feminism and their related terms combined. Selection was delimited by studies informed by feminist approaches discussing sport pedagogy from recreational to elite level. Findings Our review covered 46 studies from the last three decades when Global North English-speaking countries have dominated the scene, both as investigation settings and authorship. Studies presented two main trends. The most substantial were investigations reporting gender inequalities, especially with women coaches; followed by others exploring pedagogical alternatives for more equitable sport experiences. Together, studies have demonstrated that the ‘patriarchal gender game’ is still on and the ‘deviants’ from the cis-hetero-white-able-bodied-male ideal continue to suffer systematic prejudice and discrimination in sport, inclusive through sexist coaching. But they also showed ‘the tactics of the equity gender game’ is counterattacking with pedagogical strategies to welcome girls, women and gender-diverse people in sport. Discussion Undoubtedly, the dialogues between sport pedagogy and feminisms have contributed greatly to challenge sexism through education, but the game is not over. The invisibility of black women, women with disabilities and queer people in studies evidenced the need for more intersectional approaches. Coach development initiatives should be critically examined and rethought. The predominance of studies and researchers from Global North English-speaking countries denoted that voices and knowledges from Global South are missing. More than empathizing with gender inequalities, we long to see feminist sport pedagogy engaging in the reinvention of the ways we learn, practice, teach and coach sport. More democratic, diverse and audacious research designs grounded in the commitment to guarantee sport as an educational experience for everyone seem promising ways to be explored.

Discrimination in Youth Sport: Exploring the Experiences of European Coaches

Discrimination based on ethnicity, gender, or sexual orientation remains a critical concern across Europe, including within the sphere of youth sports. Research has shown that youth sports can be a fertile environment for discrimination and bullying and that coaches play a key role in preventing or mitigating discriminatory situations. Given the crucial role of coaches, it is therefore important to build our understanding of the experiences, perspectives, and needs of those coaches concerning discrimination in sports. Against this background, this paper presents the results of an applied survey of 174 European youth sport coaches conducted as part of the INCLUDE project. In particular, this survey focuses on the experiences of coaches when witnessing and reporting discrimination, as well as their perspectives on what needs to be done in the policy and educational areas to combat issues of discrimination. Results show that 25% of coaches witness discrimination on a monthly basis and that fans or spectators are perceived as the most common perpetrators. To combat the issues, coaches report a need for greater policy support, funding, training, and awareness raising. To conclude, we discuss the practical, policy, and research implications of these findings.

Gender Stereotypes and Discrimination in Sports and Esports Industry: A Systemic Review of Causes and Statistics

There are many inequalities existing in our world, including gender inequality and race inequality. These inequalities are caused by discrimination and stereotypes. In sports industry, the problem of gender discrimination and stereotypes is common. Female athletes and women who want to work in sport industry are confronting the problem of gender discrimination and stereotypes. In addition, a rising industry, esports industry, has the same problem. The aim of this study was to review the current state of gender discrimination and stereotypes in sports industry and causes of it. This paper reviews relevant references to give a holistic review of the current state of gender discrimination and stereotypes in sports industry, including statistics and background information, and this paper reviews the causes of this problem from macro-level, meso-level, and micro-level. The findings of this paper indicated that although sports organizations gave policies that seem to solve the problem, gender discrimination and stereotypes still exist in both sports and esports industry. Therefore, by examining the causes of the problem of gender discrimination and stereotypes in sports industry, future study can be more targeted while they are investigating the way to solve the problem.

VENI, VIDI, VICI GENDER INEQUALITY IN SPORT IN THE REPUBLIC OF SERBIA – DID WOMEN REALLY WIN THIS GAME?

Even though there are no international or national documents that would allow or encourage unjustified differences in treatment between women and men, the fact is that some areas of life are still seen as belonging to men. Sports are, certainly, at the top of that ladder. It is considered a predominantly male field, shaped according to men and seen through the eyes of men. However, with the development of human rights and the mechanism for their protection, the awareness of the equality of women and men in sports has increased. The Republic of Serbia made a set of legal rules regarding: (1) discrimination in general; (2) sports; and, finally, (3) discrimination in sports. This paper aims to present and analyse the normative and strategic frame of the protection against discrimination in sports, to examine the current case law in front of the relevant institutions, and to point out the latest tendencies in the field of gender equality and sports.

Exposing a Motherhood Penalty in Sport: A Feminist Narrative Inquiry of Media Stories of Canadian Athlete Mothers’ Journeys to the 2020 Tokyo Games

Coinciding with athlete mothers’ stories gaining media visibility, sport media researchers are studying media discourses to learn more about socially constructed motherhood and sport. The present study extends media research on elite athlete mothers, by using feminist narrative inquiry to interrogate discrimination meanings in sport. North American sport media stories were collected on Canadian athletes’ (i.e., boxer Mandy Bujold, basketball player Kim Gaucher) journeys to the 2020 Tokyo Games after being discriminated against due to their motherhood status. Thematic narrative analysis of 103 stories identified three narrative motifs (i.e., recurring concepts) in stories linked to discrimination meanings: last shots, forced to choose, and more than us. The first two motifs are discussed in relation to a motherhood penalty narrative linked to sexism and discrimination. The more than us motif is discussed in relation to the resolution to compete for both athletes, linked to maternal activism and social change. All three motifs exposed and challenged maternal discrimination in sport, using ‘feminist consciousness’ linked to a neoliberal feminist status quo. These findings show the pedagogical potential of media stories for athlete maternity rights awareness and structural change, while highlighting a need for intersectional feminist reform regarding athlete parents and post-pandemic recovery.

Factors Responsible for Gender Discrimination in Sports in Rivers State, Nigeria

The researcher investigated the Factors Responsible for Gender Discrimination in Sports in Rivers State. Three research questions and three hypotheses guided the study. The researcher used a self-developed instrument titled “Factors Responsible for Gender Discrimination in Sports in Rivers State (FRFGDSRS)” as the instrument for data collection. The instruments were administered to 570 undergraduates in the department of Human Kinetics at the University of Port Harcourt and the Ignatius Ajuru University of Education all in Port Harcourt, Rivers State. The population of the study was 12,241 students in Rivers State. The researcher employed the correlational research design for the study. The reliability coefficient yielded 0.80 using a test-retest method which shows that the instrument is reliable. Based on the findings the researcher revealed that cultural beliefs, parents and religion are the socio-cultural factors responsible for gender discrimination in sports in Rivers State. Therefore, the researcher recommends that the government at all levels should create enabling environment for unfettered participation of women in sports and its management. The private organisations and individuals in the society should support the government at all levels to provide and improve sports facilities and equipment in schools so as to enable more participation in sports by both sexes.

The Missing Gender: Examining the Barriers to Women’s Participation in Sports in India

The advent of modernity has changed the sports landscape of the world, wherein all barriers, especially gender discrimination, have been broken, with men and women competing shoulder to shoulder in the sports arena. However, the sports landscape in India is completely different, as all the major sports activities are dominated by men. The aim of this study is to classify and rank the barriers that deter women’s participation in sports in India. For achieving this objective, a multi-criteria decision-making technique of Interpretive Structural Modelling (ISM) and MICMAC analysis has been used for relative ranking and classification of barriers that lead to gender discrimination in sports in India. The study encapsulates significant barriers that hinder women from actively participating in sports in India. The findings of our study suggest that economic barriers, lack of sporting infrastructure and culture, lack of potential career opportunities, knowledge barriers, and socio-cultural barriers are vital reasons that have implications for limiting women’s participation in sports and society alike. From a policy perspective, the proposed model will help identify the key barriers that ought to be addressed to bridge the gap between men and women in the sports sector in India.

A divided house: the foundation and evolution of the Supreme Council for Sport in Africa, 1965–2013

ABSTRACT In July 1965, members of the Permanent Committee for the First African Games, from diverse backgrounds, met in Congo Brazzaville three days before the games and discussed the formation of a supranational sport organisation in the continent. The Supreme Council for Sport in Africa (SCSA) was formally constituted in Bamako as a voluntary sport organisation in 1966. In 1977, it assumed the status of an agency of the Organisation of African Unity, until its dissolution in 2013. The SCSA is best remembered for its fight against discrimination in sport; instigation of boycott threats and the boycott of the 1976 Montreal Olympic Games, and serving as the main host of the African Games. Based on hermeneutic enquiry, this research analysed archive materials from the International Olympic Committee Historical Archive and the SCSA in Africa Archive to establish a better understanding and interpretation of the internal and external divisions in which the SCSA operated. The historical enquiry provided evidence that, though the SCSA was not founded as a supranational governmental agency in sport, lack of a clear-cut vision and Africa’s political, economic and social realities hampered its efforts to effectively coordinate the development of sport in the continent.

Voices of the minority: Diverse experiences from practitioners in the field of sports and exercise psychology

The purpose of this study was to explore the lived experiences of sports and exercise psychologists and sports and exercise psychology trainees from minority groups as they practice within the field. The experiences of UK minority sports and exercise psychologists and trainees within the field have not been widely explored in the literature. The lived experiences of three practitioners were explored through the lens of race, sexual orientation and religion. Forty-five-minute semi-structured interviews were analysed using an interpretive phenomenological analysis. The following themes arose from the study: the unseen minority, embed discrimination in sport, improving the field, journey barriers and the qualities of a practitioner. Based on the themes explored future research areas are discussed.

The Commission Knocked Out Cold: Laura Serrano and the End of the Mexico City Prohibition of Women's Boxing in the 1990s

AbstractThis article examines the conflict over the legalisation of women's boxing in Mexico City in the 1990s. In 1995, Laura Serrano's Women's International Boxing Federation world boxing title put pressure on the legal system that had banned women from professional boxing in the Mexican capital since 1946. As the visibility of women's boxing grew in Mexico, Serrano publicly fought to end the ban in her home city. The Mexico City Boxing Commission's moral arguments and medical discourses about the female body became increasingly untenable as politics of gender equality won in importance. Using a range of sources, including Mexican newspapers and magazines, government gazettes, congress proceedings, and an autobiographical text by Serrano, this article illustrates the interplay of gender ideologies and institutional structures during an important period in Mexican political history. After seven decades of uninterrupted Institutional Revolutionary Party rule, power of the Mexican capital shifted to the Party of the Democratic Revolution (PRD) when Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas became the city's first elected governor in 1997. Although the PRD politically claimed the end of the prohibition in 1998, the shift in power cost Serrano the best paid boxing event of her career. It took another legal reform that outlawed discrimination in sports to force the Commission to finally regulate women's boxing in 1999.

Discrimination in Sports as a Risk of Human Rights Violations in Ukraine

The urgency of the issue in question lies in the need to improve anti-discrimination legislation in Ukraine. The article aims to summarize the current state of combating discrimination in sports. Research methods include analysis, generalization, and the formal-logical method. The article summarizes international acts that promote the prohibition of discrimination and the need to combat it. One of the main problems in world sport is racial discrimination, and there are three types of racism in sports. The main disadvantage of laws that lead to imperfect prosecution mechanism is entirely criminal liability for discrimination, even though the law on preventing and combating discrimination also implies administrative and civil liability. The article analyzes some positive foreign experience in combating and counteracting in sports. It shows that the priority areas for combating and counteracting discrimination in sports in Ukraine should be: (a) improving the legislation in terms of prosecution; (b) establishing a special body responsible for combating and counteracting discrimination in sports; (c) introducing educational tools in schools and among members of sports organizations that promote human rights, regardless of race, colour or other characteristics. Emphasis is placed on the fact that an effective mechanism of legal regulation together with preventive measures should guarantee the protection of the rights of both athletes and fans. The obtained results can serve as the basis of legislative proposals to improve the fight against discrimination in sports, which will ensure the protection of human rights.

Discrimination in sports as a gross violation of human rights in Ukraine

The urgency of the problem described in the article is the existence of an ineffective observance mechanism of athletes' and fans' rights in connection with the manifestations of discrimination in sports. Therefore, the purpose of the article is to find ways to improve Ukrainian legislation in terms of protection of human rights from any manifestations of discrimination. To achieve this goal, the system-structural method and the formal-legal method, the method of analysis, the formal-logical method were used. The Ukrainian legislation in the researched field is analyzed. The experience of other countries in combating discrimination in sports has been studied. It is proposed to create an institute of sports ombudsman in Ukraine and stressed the need not to improve the criminal legislation in terms of clarifying the provisions of Article 161 of the Criminal Code of Ukraine. The expediency of establishing administrative liability for non-compliance with anti-discrimination legislation, amending the Code of Ukraine on Administrative Offenses, which, in turn, will facilitate more prompt prosecution for human rights violations in sports. The practical value of the obtained results is that it can be taken as a basis for finding a mechanism to improve the fight against discrimination in sports.

Gender identity and Olympic games: The iridescence in Tokyo 2020

The Tokyo 2020 Olympic Games has brought great strides in terms of equality and inclusion. At least 185 publicly out LGBTIQ+ athletes have attended this global mega-event, which is more than triple the number from the 2016 Rio Olympics. This study investigates the sports participation of the LGBTIQ+ group based on qualitative method of literature review and logical analysis. It first examines the literature about the LGBTIQ+ group's sports participation and then sheds light on the evolution of gender characteristics of Olympics and sports from a historical research perspective. Finally, taking Tokyo 2020 Olympic Games as an example, this work discusses the state quo and future of the LGBTIQ+ group's Olympic participation. The results indicate that sex discrimination in sports has a long history. As the most important global sporting event, the Olympic Games have gone through different stages from the "male-exclusivity" to the gender binary system. However, true gender equality has not yet been realized. In addition, it points out that the Tokyo Olympics is of positive significance for promoting inclusiveness and equality. The ever-developing inclusiveness and diversity will probably break the gender competition mechanism of the Olympic Games. Sports institutions need to deal well with issues of gender equality and fair competition

Experiences of LGBTQ+ individuals in sports in Germany

There is growing international evidence that lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, and sexually/gender diverse (LGBTQ+) people regularly experience discrimination in sports. However, there is a lack of empirical research with regard to the sports situation in Germany. Based on a quantitative survey of 858 self-identifying LGBTQ+ individuals, the present research is the first to provide a comprehensive picture of the experiences of LGBTQ+ people in sports in Germany. To add distinctive knowledge to the international research, this analysis considers differences within the group of LGBTQ+ people and between various sports settings (i.e., organizational framework, team vs individual sports, and performance level. Two research questions are addressed: (1) What micro- and meso-level factors affect the witnessing of homo-/transnegative language and the prevalence of homo-/transnegative incidents in respondents’ sports activities? (2) What micro- and meso-level factors affect respondents’ feelings of being offended by homo-/transnegative language and what behavioral consequences (i.e., refraining from specific sports and reactions to homo-/transnegative episodes) can be observed among different LGBTQ+ subgroups? The data reveal the impact of the sports context on the perception of homo-/transnegative language but not on negative experiences. Moreover, there is a higher prevalence of gay compared to lesbian athletes with regard to the perception of homo-/transnegative language in their sports and a higher prevalence of gay athletes and non-cisgender (transgender) athletes with regard to homo-/transnegative experiences in sport compared to lesbian and cisgender athletes. The empirical evidence confirms and deepens international findings. Moreover, the data assist the Sport Ministers Conference’s goal of increasing initiatives to tackle the exclusion and discrimination faced by LGBTQ+ people in sports.

Addressing Gender Discrimination in the NBA with a “Hammon” Rule

The purpose of this conceptual study was to examine how the National Basketball Association (NBA) should address gender discrimination in sports by implementing the “Hammon” Rule for head coaching and general manager hiring processes. Drawing from societal perceptions (Sagas & Cunningham, 2004; Schaeperkoetter et al., 2017), leadership (Burton, 2015) and the infusion of the Ecological-Intersectional Model (EIM) (LaVoi, 2016) as conceptual focal points, this article asserts that the NBA has important opportunities to lead other professional sports leagues to aid in its recruitment and retention of women in front-facing leadership roles. Utilizing Lapchick’s (2020a) report on race and gender for the NBA, this study calls for progressive action. As the current literature documents, legal and cultural factors, as well as leadership and lack of advocacy, all play a crucial role in how women are perceived within sport. This study provides a multi-faceted approach to addressing gender discrimination at the coaching and general manager levels, including accountability measures necessary for structural and organizational change to address gender discrimination in the NBA and beyond.

Weight stigma experiences and self-exclusion from sport and exercise settings among people with obesity

BackgroundA central strategy to tackle the health risks of obesity is regular physical activity (PA), exercising and participating in sports. However, people with obesity regularly experience weight-related stigma and discrimination in sport and exercise settings. Research has indicated that they often cope with such experiences by simply excluding themselves from sport and exercise. Meanwhile, self-exclusion as a coping strategy has not been fully understood and it remains unclear to what extent self-exclusion from PA settings is accompanied by general inactivity among people with obesity. The goal of this interview study was to determine to what extent physical inactivity among adults with obesity is the result of weight stigma-induced self-exclusion in and from sport and PA settings.MethodsWe conducted semi-structured interviews with thirty adult men and women with obesity (average BMI: 40.64) and asked them about experiences with their body, weight stigma and coping behaviours in sport and exercise settings across their lifespans. Employing constant comparative analysis and a thematic network approach, we analysed the interview data to identify the most common reasons for and different strategies of self-exclusion.ResultsParticipants reported that they excluded themselves from sport and exercise settings due to traumatic weight stigma experiences, self-discrimination and fear of stigma, using a variety of strategies. Exposure to discrimination was prevented by selectively avoiding certain settings or strategically frequenting them at certain times only, but also by exercising in ‘safe’ spaces, e.g. at home. Furthermore, people with obesity reported strategically managing their social relations in order to avoid stigmatising reactions by others in exercise settings, for example by exercising individually and avoiding social PA. Most notably, our results strongly indicate that not all self-excluding coping strategies result in less exercising.ConclusionsIn order to successfully promote physical activity among people with obesity, the various forms of self-exclusion should be taken into account as pathways of stigma regarding physical activity. People with obesity may exclude themselves from certain PA settings, yet could still be exercising on their own or in other ways. One focus of public health strategies should thus be directed at the potentially socially isolating effects.

CERTAIN ASPECTS OF GENDER EQUALITY IN THE FIELD OF SPORTS LAW

This article examines the main issues of gender equality in sports law. It is noted that in the modern world, such a phenomenon as sports is at one of the leading levels in people’s lives, and at the same time is considered a fullfledged and integral element of the social life of the community. However, the development of sports as well as culture, in particular physical, is not possible without taking into account the fundamental role of law, which is an important tool in regulating civil relations. One of the problems that is relevant today is the legal regulation of legal relations in the field of sports law aimed at protecting women and men from discrimination. Many scientific studies have been devoted to the protection of individuals from discrimination in sports, the study of legal regulation of civil relations in the field of sports law. It is emphasized that one of the main principles of civil law is the principle of legal equality of participants in civil relations, according to which subjects of civil law participate in civil relations on equal terms, are equal before the law, cannot enjoy benefits, and privileges, such as contrary to the law and have the right without any discrimination to equal protection of rights and legitimate interests. The existing gender imbalance makes sport a key lever capable of eliminating gender inequality on a global scale as soon as possible. The strategy of using sport as a tool to achieve gender equality is a transitional measure and should be fully implemented. One of the current topics at present is the problem of defining sports relations between individuals in general, and men and women in particular, due to several reasons. First, sports law is a fairly young and, therefore, insufficiently theoretically developed field of scientific knowledge. Secondly, it should be noted that social relations in the field of physical culture and sports play an important role in the social life of society and the creation of family relations, as they are of interest to almost every citizen of any state, and contribute to the spiritual unity of the various peoples of the world. Thirdly, sporting achievements significantly affect the country's prestige in the international arena, increase interest in it from potential investors, which steadily leads to raised national income, increased gross domestic product, and economic wellbeing. Fourthly, the study of sports relations has a special practical significance, because the correct understanding of the main legal categories, which is a legal relationship, directly depends on both law-making and law enforcement activities. Sports legal relations are characterized by such features as the presence of a special entity – a participant in sports activities; mediation through sports-legal relations of the state policy in the field of sports; the peculiarity of the order and methods of protection of the rights of participants of sports activity; close connection of sports-legal relations with the requirements of sports ethics (social norms, gender equality, and rules of sports ethics, as well as measures of ethical and social responsibility); clear temporal certainty and dynamism.

Combating Discrimination or Repoliticizing Sports? The Specifics of the Perception of Black Lives Matter in Sports-Fans Online Communities

This article is devoted to the study of the transformation of the processes of the politicization of sports. The authors show that the development of modern states naturally included sports in the system of power relations both at the domestic and foreign policy levels. At the beginning of the 21st century, a new form of this process was a kind of interpretation of racial discrimination, proposed in the framework of critical racial theory. The most striking embodiment of the ideology and practice of critical race theory was the BLM movement, whose actions were supported by a number of athletes and sports organizations causing a mixed reaction in the fan community. Based on both domestic and Western studies of the attitude of sports fans, we attempted to analyze the specifics of the perception of BLM actions of Russian fans in sports. The empirical basis of the study was the comments of fans on the forums of sports news agencies in 2020. The research hypothesis was based on the assumption that the study of online comments on the news about the participation or non-participation of Russian athletes in BLM events will reveal the unconscious attitudes and semantic framework for the perception of domestic sports fans of a new interpretation of the racial problem in sports. As a result of the analysis, there was a lack of unity in the assessment of BLM-shares in sports. Some fans support athletes in the fight against discrimination in sports, while some evaluate the actions of athletes negatively, and categorically do not accept their position. Here, on a mundane level, the illusory nature of BLM is recognized. The specifics of the social dimension of racism, which CRT insists on, are not understood by domestic fans; BLM actions appear to be an external phenomena in sports, primarily having a political dimension. Special attention should be paid to the pattern of Russia as a special space; because of the moral characteristics of the population and its specific mentality, discriminatory practices are historically generally uncharacteristic, and the fight against these discriminatory practices is irrelevant in the Russian fan community.

Human rights in sport: interaction of international legal and сorporate standards

INTRODUCTION. In some areas of international sports regulation, it is lex sportiva (for example, the establishment of rules for sports competitions) or the law created by the State / States (for example, the fight against crime in sports) that plays a dominant role. In a number of areas, international sports law and lex sportiva exercise regulatory impact simultaneously. The purpose of the article is to examine how these two sets of regulations contribute to the observance of human rights in sport. The author's three goals were to analyze the process of interference of regulatory efforts based on examples of prohibiting discrimination, using lex mitior, and countering doping in sports.MATERIALS AND METHODS. In each case, the author listed the applicable international legal acts and acts of lex sportivа, studied the domestic and foreign doctrine, used the jurisprudence of the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) and the Court of Arbitration for Sport (CAS).The author utilised such general scientific methods as the substratum (content), structural and system approaches. The comparative and hermeneutical approaches should be named as specific scientific methods that were used.RESEARCH RESULTS. Th author characterised the content of the international legal and corporate standards that have been formed in the spheres of prohibiting discrimination, using lex mitior, and countering doping. As a result of their comparison, she comes to the following conclusions: international law and lex sportiva are unanimous in their intent to eliminate discrimination in sports; lex sportiva seeks to apply the legal standard of lex mitior; in the field of anti-doping, a number of inconsistencies have been identified between international legal and corporate standards recognized by lex sportiva.DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS. The prohibition of discrimination is an example of harmonization, as a result of which the requirements of international sports law and lex sportiva complement and strengthen each other. The second case is an example of the successful reception by lex sportiva of the legal concept of lex mitior, which is well-known to national and international law. When countering doping at the present stage, it is lex sportiva that dominates, and the failure to fully comply with the requirements of "due process" and, in particular, with the presumption of innocence in respect of professional athletes is a cause of concern to the academic community and the ECtHR.