Discrete Choice Research Articles

The effect of hedonic and eudaimonic happiness in driving altruistic food choices

AbstractThis study investigates whether individual happiness affects prosocial behavior in food choices. We considered two distinct dimensions of happiness: hedonic and eudaimonic. The hedonic component is focused on pleasure, joy, and immediate gratification, while the eudaimonic aspect is related to a sense of purpose in life, personal growth, and the fulfillment of individual aspirations. We conducted a discrete choice experiment to assess if happy people are more prone to altruistic choices when buying food. The results indicate that individual happiness exerts distinct effects according to its two dimensions, eudaimonia and hedonism. We found that happiness influences the demand for ethical foods, whereas it exerts a detrimental effect on preferences for food with environmental labels.

What matters most to healthy older adults in treatment decision making: a discrete choice experiment

Abstract Introduction Shifting to a patient centered approach is crucial for a sustainable healthcare system. Understanding individuals’ priorities is essential for personalized care, especially in critical illness. Treatment decisions are often aimed at disease-specific outcomes such as life extension or survival, while patient-specific outcomes like maintaining independence may be equally vital. How healthy older adults prioritize treatment outcomes in case of a critical illness is currently unknown. Enhanced insight into their priorities can refine healthcare policy, for more personalized care. This study investigated outcomes (attributes) prioritized in hypothetical decision-making by healthy adults over 50 yr. Methods We conducted a Discrete Choice Experiment with individuals aged ≥50, comparing six pairs of hypothetical treatments with five attributes: life expectancy, independence, pain, memory complaints and societal costs. Attribute utility was analyzed using a conditional logit model, and latent class analyses were employed to explore preferences in groups. Results In 333 participants (mean age 70 +/- 7.7) all attributes emerged as impactful with independence being strongest (p < 0.05). Increased life expectancy had positive utility, but only for a two-year increase. Negative utility was found for all other attributes except mild pain and memory complaints. Latent class analyses identified two groups (22.4% and 77.6%). Group one valued life expectancy more (p .019 vs .940), whereas the second group valued independence (p .058 vs.<.001 and societal costs (p.053 vs. <.001) more. Conclusions In a hypothetical case of life-threatening disease, for people aged ≥ 50 life expectancy was not the sole relevant outcome for treatment decisions; pain, independence and societal costs are important and should be discussed in clinical decision making or healthcare policy. Key messages • Older adults find patient-specific outcomes relevant for decision making. • Societal costs are found relevant for decision making for treatment by older adults.

Preferences for genetic interventions for SCA and Huntington’s disease: results of a discrete choice experiment among patients

BackgroundAlthough genetic interventions are on the horizon for some polyglutamine expansion diseases, such as subtypes of spinocerebellar ataxia (SCA) and Huntington’s disease (HD), the patients’ preferences regarding these new therapies are unclear. This study aims to get insight into what extent different characteristics of genetic interventions affect the preferences of patients with SCA and HD with regard to these interventions.MethodsManifest and premanifest patients with SCA or HD were recruited online by platforms of patient associations. The respondents conducted a questionnaire that included a discrete choice experiment (DCE). The experimental design included 24 choice sets, but these were divided into three blocks of eight to reduce the number of tasks per respondent. Each choice set included two alternative treatments and consisted of four attributes (mode and frequency of administration, chance of a beneficial effect, risks, and follow-up), each with three or four different levels. The forced choice-elicitation format was used. Data were analyzed by using a multinominal logistic regression model.ResultsResponses of 216 participants were collected. The mode and frequency of administration of a genetic intervention, as well as the chance of a beneficial effect both influence the choice for a genetic intervention. Respondents less prefer repeated lumbar punctures compared to a single operation. As expected, a higher beneficial effect of treatment was preferred. Risks and follow-up did not influence the choice for a genetic intervention.ConclusionsThe results can be used for the design and implementation of future genetic interventional trials as well as of patient-centered care pathways for rare movement disorders such as SCA and HD.

Job preferences of master public health candidates in Northeast China based on discrete choice experiments

BackgroundThe shortage of health workers in rural and remote areas is a key issue for global health systems, including China. Public health undertakings in Northeast China face the risk of a talent gap. In September 2023, the National Development and Reform Commission (NDRC) held a symposium on promoting the comprehensive revitalization of Northeast China in the New Era, proposing to support the comprehensive revitalization of Northeast China with high-quality population development, strengthen the development and utilization of human resources, and increase policy support for the revitalization of talent.MethodsThe questionnaire was designed by discrete choice experiments, and 1208 Public Health Master’s candidates from six universities in Northeast China were investigated online via the Powercx system network survey platform in April 2024. The mixed logit model was used to analyze the job preferences of Master Public Health candidates.ResultsAll 7 attributes included in the study had statistically significant effects on the job preferences of public health master’s degree candidates (P < 0.05). They tended to choose jobs with higher monthly income (12,000 CNY/month), located in cities with good working environments and with Bianzhi when seeking jobs. There is heterogeneity in job preference, and different preference characteristics are displayed in different subgroups.ConclusionThis study revealed that public health master’s degree candidates in Northeast China were more willing to choose jobs with higher monthly incomes, working places in cities and better working environments. The way to formulate a combination of policy packages is more attractive than improving a single aspect alone. Since the preferences of each subgroup are different, the preference characteristics of the target population should also be considered when formulating the policy package to meet the challenges of talent attraction and retention.

Economic assessment of ecosystem services with a novel concept of elevation: An application of the discrete choice experiment method

AbstractThis research was conducted in the Hei River Basin of China to understand respondents' willingness to pay (WTP) for ecological services towards sustainable river system management. A discrete choice experiment is used to gauge respondents' preferences. In addition, elevation was introduced as a novel spatial attribute to account for heterogeneity. Primary data from 1680 respondents were collected across the Hei River Basin. The elevation of the river was categorized into five ad hoc elevation ranges to analyze the potential effects of elevation on environmental attributes. These samples were stratified as 1000–1600 m, 1601–2200 m, 2201–2800 m, 2801–3400 m, and 3401–4000 m. Pooled data results showed that the maximum WTP was for water quality, that is, 142.05 RMB, without considering the effect of elevation. However, when the interaction with elevation was included, the amount decreased to 133.52 RMB. Likewise, elevation‐based group estimates showed a varied pattern of spatial preference, with different preferences for each distinguishing attribute. Group A prioritized water quality (92.81 RMB) and the East Juyan area (4.12 RMB). In contrast, Group B preferred the guaranteed rate of irrigation of farmland (3.50 RMB) and reduced sandstorm frequency (17.90 RMB). Leisure and entertainment conditions had the lowest WTP across all groups (0.09–0.50 RMB). These findings highlight the importance of incorporating respondents' preferences in restoring and maintaining river systems. Additionally, it emphasized the need to consider respondents' socioeconomic characteristics when developing sustainable management policies.

Decision-analytic modelling of costs &amp; benefits of adding sigmoidoscopy to CRC screening in Germany

Abstract Background In Germany, a colorectal cancer (CRC) screening programme is in place that entitles individuals to a stool test or colonoscopy. However, less than half of those eligible participate. The inclusion of an additional screening option, such as the evidence-based sigmoidoscopy, could lead to a higher overall participation rate, but also to individuals preferring the additional option to the more effective colonoscopy. The objective of this modelling study is to estimate the impact of offering sigmoidoscopy as an additional option for CRC screening in Germany. Methods A life-time mathematical model (Markov model) is developed to analyse the long-term effects of the additional offer of sigmoidoscopy on benefits (prevalence, mortality, health-related quality of life (HRQoL)), costs, and cost-effectiveness. The model is based on systematic literature reviews and real-world healthcare data. It incorporates disease development, sensitivity and specificity of the options, compliance rates, survival probabilities and background mortality. A discrete choice experiment (DCE) was conducted to estimate the future uptake of the options (stool test, colonoscopy, sigmoidoscopy, no screening) based on stated preferences of n = 666 individuals. Results Adding sigmoidoscopy leads to greater effectiveness of the CRC screening programme in terms of increased screening participation, increased adenoma detection, decreased disease-specific mortality, and improved discounted HRQoL. However, it also incurs higher costs. The incremental cost-effectiveness ratios (ICER) for men and women are €507 per quality-adjusted life year gained (QALYg) and €74 per QALYg, respectively. Conclusions The results indicate that the inclusion of sigmoidoscopy in the German CRC screening programme would be cost-effective and that sigmoidoscopy should be piloted in practice. The expanded programme has the potential to enhance the program’s effectiveness, improve health outcomes, and reduce the burden of CRC. Key messages • Expanding the CRC screening programme may increase overall participation, resulting in higher costs, but also greater effectiveness in detecting more adenomas, reducing mortality, improving HRQoL. • Introducing sigmoidoscopy in Germany appears cost-effective and justifies practical piloting to enhance CRC screening efficacy and health outcomes.

Animal Welfare or Own Welfare: What Motivates Consumers’ Choice of Cage‐Free Products?

ABSTRACTThis study addresses the puzzle of animal welfare regulations consistently passing by majority votes, despite potential welfare losses evident in market data. To understand this phenomenon, we propose a conceptual framework that considers two possibilities: first, animal welfare might not be valued in the market, as suggested by classical externality analysis, and second, it could be valued due to altruistic motivations. To illustrate the framework, we uncover the motives driving consumers’ demand for animal welfare products jointly utilizing the results of a discrete choice experiment and respondents’ perception data obtained in China. Our findings align with the predictions made by classical externality analysis, indicating that the public good aspect of animal welfare is not valued in this market and thereby challenging the existence of altruistic behavior. Moreover, our analysis of consumer heterogeneity reveals that as consumers’ knowledge increases, they exhibit a decreased inclination to prioritize the animal welfare attribute for fulfilling their private needs, and may raise concerns about the safety of animal welfare‐friendly products.

Biologics and oral systemic treatment preferences in patients and physicians for moderate-to-severe atopic dermatitis: a discrete choice experiment in the United Kingdom and Germany

Background: As the available treatments for moderate-to-severe atopic dermatitis (AD) expand, understanding patient and physician preferences becomes crucial for informed decision-making. Objective: To quantify patient and physician preferences for biologics and oral systemic AD treatment attributes. Materials and methods: We conducted a cross-sectional, online discrete choice experiment (DCE) involving 306 AD patients and 206 physicians throughout the United Kingdom and Germany. Qualitative interviews identified the key attributes for inclusion in the DCE. Each choice task comprised two hypothetical patient profiles. Data were analyzed using a random-parameters logit model. Results: Results indicated a significant emphasis on efficacy, with reducing sleep disturbance and itch ranking first and second among patients, and the reverse for physicians. Time to itch relief was the third most important efficacy attribute for both groups, but relatively more important for patients than for physicians. For both groups, the risk of eye problems was the most important safety concern of those included. Mode of administration was not of great importance compared to efficacy and safety attributes. Conclusions: Our findings suggest patients prioritize sleep disturbance, an attribute not captured in prior preference studies in AD, time to itch relief and itch. These findings emphasize the importance of addressing sleep-related issues, whilst also targeting fast itch control, to enhance patients’ well-being.

The Short Form 6 Dimensions (SF-6D): Development and Evolution.

This paper considers the development and evolution of the short-form 6 dimensions (SF-6D), a generic preference-weighted measure consisting of a health classification with accompanying value set that was developed from one of the widest used health related quality of life measures, the SF-36 health survey. This enabled health state utility values to be directly generated from SF-36 and SF-12 data for a range of purposes, including to produce quality adjusted life years for use in economic evaluation of healthcare interventions across a range of different conditions and treatments. This paper considers the rationale for the development of the measure, the development process, performance and how the SF-6D has evolved since its conception. This includes the development of an updated version, SF-6D version 2 (SF-6Dv2), which was generated to deal with some criticisms of the first version, and now includes a standalone version for inclusion in studies without relying on use of SF-36 or SF-12. Valuation methods have also evolved, from standard gamble in-person interviews to online discrete choice experiment surveys. International work related to the SF-6Dv1 and SF-6Dv2 is considered. We also consider recommendations for use, highlighting key psychometric evidence and reimbursement agency recommendations.

Eliciting medication preferences of patients with type 2 diabetes under different insurance coverages in China

ObjectiveTo understand the medication preference of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) patients with different insurance coverages, and to provide reference for improving the patient-centered clinical treatment decision.MethodsThis study used Discrete Choice Experiment (DCE) to elicit preferences of T2DM patients with different insurance coverages in China. A multistage stratified cluster-sampling procedure for data collection and a total of 1,409 valid respondent were conducted.ResultsSeven attributes have significant influence on the preference of T2DM patients with Urban Employee Basic Medical Insurance (UEBMI) and Urban and Rural Residents Basic Medical Insurance (URRBMI) (p &amp;lt; 0.05). T2DM patients with UEBMI pay the most attention to Gastrointestinal adverse events, while T2DM patients with URRBMI pay the most attention to the Treatment efficacy/reduction in HbA1c. Patients with different medical insurance have different willingness to pay for Cardiovascular benefits, Mode of administration and Weight change. When Gastrointestinal adverse events is changed from higher (40%) to none (0%), patients with UEBMI are willing to pay ¥523.49 more per month, while patients with URRBMI are only willing to pay ¥266.62; When the Treatment efficacy/reduction in HbA1c changes from poor (0.5%) to Highest (2.5%), patients with UEBMI are willing to pay ¥518.44 more per month, while patients with URRBMI are willing to pay ¥328.33 more per month. The Gastrointestinal adverse events and the Treatment efficacy/reduction in HbA1c are the primary factors for T2DM patients with UEBMI and URRBMI, followed by the Hypoglycemic risk.ConclusionPhysicians should consider patients’ medication preferences in clinical medication treatment of T2DM patients with different insurance coverages, make targeted treatment decisions, and improve patients’ medication compliance to achieve better treatment results.

Allocators are more prosocial when affected agents can visually eavesdrop

In these experiments, participants made binary choices in “dictator” games choosing distributions for themselves and others. All payoffs are initially hidden and can be clicked open using a mouse. To study the effect of social image on attention and choices, we used a novel screensharing technique: One of the participants receiving the chooser's allocation can observe the chooser's clicks, so they can see if the chooser is looking up what the impact will be on their own allocation (but they cannot observe the chooser's choices). This change in observability increases the possible impact of social image concerns on expressed social preferences. It increases the time choosers spend looking at the potential payoffs to the observer and makes their choices less selfish. This finding goes against the hypothesis of “willful ignorance” and suggests other behavioral influences.

Public preferences for edible invasive alien marine species - The Atlantic blue crab in southern Italy

Since 2014, the provision of the aquatic ecosystem services has been gradually affected due to the biological invasion of Callinectes sapidus (Rathbun, 1896, Crustacea, Decapoda, Portunidae), commonly known as Atlantic blue crab, across several lagoon-like locations in Italy. In addition, this serious aquatic invasive species, native of North American coasts, has already inflicted economic damage of about EUR 100 million to the Italian fishing and farming communities over the past year. To counter their severe and rapid spread, the Italian Government has encouraged the fishing communities to catch as many as possible and commercially exploit them for human consumption in an attempt to manage their expansion. Since there is an ongoing promotion for the consumption of blue crab by forging novel food businesses in Italy, this paper aims to predict the public preferences and their willingness to pay (WTP) towards this biological invader. For this purpose, a discrete choice experiment approach is used, by means of a multinomial logit model (MNL) and latent class model (LCM). The social field survey involves a representative sample of 440 valid respondents in Apulia Region, southern Italy. The descriptive statistics results reveal that 67.50% of the local citizens interviewed know about the blue crab invasion, while 29.09% of them have already consumed this seafood species. In addition, the MNL results show that the most appreciated attributes of the blue crabs by respondents are freshness and large size. Further, the LCM findings reveal two representative classes of Apulian consumers; the first group of citizens (70.9% of total respondents) expresses positive appreciation for consuming blue crabs, while the second group (29.1% of total respondents) is not willing to pay a premium price regarding this potential commercial activity. Furthermore, the econometric results show that the average value that Apulian’s (i.e. those belonging to Class/Group I of respondents) WTP for blue crabs’ consumption is about EUR 18 per kilogram. In this regard, this research has public and private implications and may reasonably promote the commercial exploitation of blue crabs, enhancing the reduction of its population density through human consumption as a promised management control strategy and forging a novel profitable business mainly for local small-scale artisanal fisheries.

The Role of Fairness for Accepting Stricter Carbon Taxes in Sweden

Carbon taxes are considered to be an efficient method to reduce greenhouse gas emissions; however, such taxes are generally unpopular, partly because they are seen as unfair. To explore if public acceptance of a stricter carbon tax in Sweden can be enhanced, this study investigates the effectiveness of three different policy designs, addressing collective and personal distributional consequences and promoting procedural aspects (democratic influence). A large-scale (n = 5200) survey is applied, combining a traditional multi-category answer format with a binary choice format. The results show that support for higher carbon taxation can be enhanced if tax revenues are redistributed to affected groups. Policies with collective justice framings can change the attitudes of individuals who express antagonistic attitudes to increased carbon taxation and influence groups comparably more affected by carbon taxes, such as rural residents, low-income groups, and people who are driving long distances. Policy designs addressing collective distributional consequences are, however, less effective on individuals expressing right-leaning ideological views and low environmental concern. Policies addressing personal distributional outcomes, or perceptions of procedural injustice, had no significant effect on policy acceptance.

Frustration Gap Bridging: A Second Look at Vocabulary Proficiency with the Yes/No Test

This research advances the scrutiny of the Yes/No test's (Meara: 1990) efficacy in evaluating vocabulary proficiency among language learners of high, middle, and low proficiency levels, focusing on its capability to mitigate the frustration commonly encountered by this demographic. As highlighted in the recent investigation (Goetz, 2023), the Yes/No test prompted respondents to signify their word familiarity through binary choices. Yes, they know a word, and No, they don’t. Involving a paltry 56 English language learners of lower proficiency to determine if the test's impact on enhancing vocabulary skills had merit, it was found that contrary to the anticipated outcomes, the test did not yield significant advancements in students' performance on subsequent unit tests compared to their counterparts who were not subjected to the Yes/No test. This absence of tangible benefits, combined with the test's failure to deliver a contextualized and nuanced comprehension of vocabulary, raises questions regarding its efficacy as a pedagogical tool for vocabulary enhancement. Nevertheless, the results did not dismiss the Yes/No test's potential utility. For this study, a second look will address two critical shortcomings: the limited sample size and the absence of a diverse range of proficiency levels among participants. This inquiry reevaluates the Yes/No test's capacity to effectively navigate the intricacies of language acquisition, proposing a more in-depth investigation into whether this binary and straightforward approach could indeed be beneficial or whether it underscores the imperative for a more holistic and contextually aware method in language instruction by expanding the sample size and including more proficiency levels. Questions remain regarding the efficacy of the Yes/No test. Is it optimally utilized as a straightforward, standalone tool, or should it be considered within the broader spectrum of comprehensive, context-sensitive learning strategies? This inquiry invites a nuanced evaluation of the test's role in language acquisition. It challenges researchers and practitioners to contemplate whether its simplicity is a virtue in isolation or if its true value emerges when integrated with a holistic approach to learning.

Preferences in treating polyomavirus infection in kidney transplant recipients: A discrete choice experiment with patients, caregivers, and clinicians.

Treatment strategies for BK polyomavirus (BKPyV) infection in kidney transplant recipients are heterogeneous among clinicians. We aimed to identify the treatment preferences of key stakeholders for BKPyV infection and measure the trade-offs between treatment outcomes. Adult kidney transplant recipients, caregivers, and clinicians were eligible to participate in a discrete choice experiment between February 2021 and June 2022. The five treatment-related attributes were achieving viral clearance and optimal graft function, as well as reducing the risk of graft loss, acute rejection, and complications. Results were analyzed using multinomial logistic models. In total, 109 participants (57 kidney transplant recipients, 10 caregivers, and 42 health professionals) were included. The most important attribute was the risk of graft loss, followed by side effects and acute rejection. As the risk of graft loss increased, all participants were less inclined to accept an assigned treatment strategy. For instance, if graft loss risk was increased from 1% to 50%, the probability of uptake of a treatment strategy for BKPyV infection was reduced from 87% to 3%. Graft loss is the predominant concern for patients, caregivers, and health professionals when deciding on the treatment for BKPyV infection, and should be included in intervention trials of BKPyV infection.

Psychological value theory: predicting health-seeking behavior from symptom perception.

We recruit Psychological Value Theory (PVT) to understand how symptom value influences health-seeking decisions. Estimates of the Psychological Value of relief from a particular symptom were previously collected and used to predict the speed of participants' decision and the choice they make in three discrete choice experiments. Experiment 1 presented participants with a scenario and asked them to identify which of two symptoms they would seek healthcare services to treat. For each participant on every trial, two randomly chosen symptoms were inserted into the scenario. Experiment 2 addressed how the Psychological Value of a group of symptoms is predicted from the individual symptoms. Experiment 2 replicated Experiment 1 using groups of two symptoms, and predicted choice based on three grouping functions. Experiment 3 replicated Experiment 2 using a yes/no task, whereby participants were asked if they would pursue a health care visit for a single set of symptoms. The results showed that PVT accurately predicted speed and choice in all three experiments. The Psychological Value of relief from a symptom was the primary driver of choice along with a response bias in favor of avoiding symptoms labeled "severe."Health-seeking decisions are well modeled by a general-purpose, value-based computational model (PVT), with the Psychological Value of relief from health symptoms as a primary driver of health-seeking behavior.

Not all about the money: Service quality information improves consumer decision-making

Information asymmetries are pervasive in many industries and can result in large losses in consumer welfare. Does providing product quality information result in improved consumer decision-making? We study this question in a market where quality is notoriously hard to determine ex ante: the residential energy market. Using a discrete choice experiment (N = 1,002), we document a substantial willingness-to-pay (37–45 % of the median bill) for four service quality attributes (transparency, agency, authenticity, and convenience). In an incentivized search task (N = 432), we show that how quality information is presented matters: consumers who view information in the form of ratings and stamps of approval are (i) 4 % more likely to opt in to the search task, and (ii) 20 % more likely to correctly identify given levels of quality, relative to consumers who are provided with bar graphs, pie charts, and text. Finally, using a decision experiment (N = 510) with real company names familiar to our participants, we find that the provision of quality information increases choices of the best-rated company more than 20-fold, relative to the control scenario where quality information is absent, in which consumers select companies predominantly on price and brand awareness. Our findings are applicable to other markets in which information asymmetries are present, where policymakers should consider interventions that promote transparency and quality information provision.

Nationwide Discrete Choice Experiment on Chinese Guardians’ Preferences for HPV Vaccination for Mothers and Daughters

Background: HPV vaccination is the key measure to prevent cervical cancer, but uptake in China lags behind global targets. Understanding Chinese guardians’ preferences is key to improving vaccine acceptance and coverage. Methods: A nationwide online discrete choice experiment survey was conducted among 4933 Chinese guardians across seven provinces in 2022 to quantify preferences and willingness to pay. Attributes included effectiveness, safety, duration, valency, location, and out-of-pocket cost. Results: Out of the 4933 guardians who participated in the study, 4179 (84.72%) were mothers. More than 60% of the guardians belonged to the age group of 35–44 years. Additionally, over half of the respondents (53.15%) had daughters between the ages of 9 and 14 years. Respondents were open to accepting the HPV vaccine with 95% efficacy and exceptional safety. Guardians expressed a preference for longer protection duration (specifically 15 years (βa = 0.340, 95% CI: 0.31, 0.37)) and higher vaccine valency. As for willingness to pay, the respondents placed the highest value on vaccine efficacy, being willing to shell out more than USD 1100 for 95% protection as compared to 50%. Furthermore, very good safety commanded a premium of over USD 800 when compared to average safety. When it comes to willingness to uptake, a vaccine with 95% efficacy led to a more than 35% increase in acceptance as compared to one with 50% efficacy. Similarly, exceptional safety resulted in an increased willingness to uptake of over 25% when compared to average safety. Conclusions: The DCE highlighted effectiveness, safety, and durability as critical drivers of HPV vaccine acceptance, but substantial barriers persist regarding adolescent female coverage in China.

Understanding the interactions that children and young people have with their natural and built environments: A survey to identify targets for active travel behaviour change in Wales.

Active travel offers many societal benefits, including improving people's mental and physical health and minimising our impacts on the environment. Increasing active travel is particularly important amongst children and young people (CYP), who are building habits which they will carry into adulthood. Studies on active travel amongst CYP are limited, however, with most research focusing on adult participants or on adult perceptions of children. This study sought to understand CYP's interactions with the built and natural environment-and therefore their access to active travel-through the Capability, Opportunity, Motivation, Behaviour (COM-B) model. With a stakeholder group representing local government, youth organisations and active travel organisations, we co-created two bilingual questionnaires-one for young people aged 12-16 years living in Wales and the other for parents of young people aged 12-16 years living in Wales. Both questionnaires collected information on behaviour and perceived capability, opportunity and motivation of CYP to engage with their natural and built environments. The questionnaires included a discrete choice experiment (DCE), which proposed a series of binary choice questions indicating preferences based on landscape, journey time and type of travel. A total of 124 questionnaires (38 young people and 86 parents) were returned for analysis. These data indicate that CYP's time spent outdoors is not dependent upon geography (rural/urban/suburban), season, or school holidays. There was a significant difference in capability, opportunity and motivation between parents and CYP, with parents over-estimating the psychological capability of CYP to engage outdoors. The preference data indicate that active travel is the favoured mode of transport, with both CYP and parents stating that they would increase travel time in order to travel actively. While this response is not consistent with respondent's day-to-day travel choices, it suggests that the limitations to active travel may be psychological capability and automatic motivation, rather than a lack of opportunity.

Patient preferences for ocular hypertension monitoring: a discrete choice experiment

Background/aimsTo elicit the preferences and calculate the willingness to pay (WTP) of patients with ocular hypertension (OHT) for eye monitoring services in the UK.MethodsPatients with OHT aged at least 18...