Discipline Of Pharmacology Research Articles

Can Pharmacometabolomics and LC-HRMS develop a new Concept for Therapeutic Drug Monitoring?

Therapeutic drug monitoring (TDM) is a concept for individualized drug dosing that was developed into clinical routine as a consequence of research findings on variable drug effects and analytical technology developments made in the 1950th and onwards, and founded the clinical pharmacology discipline (1,2). TDM in practice is about measuring a specific drug concentration in blood, serum or plasma, but may also include pharmacogenetic and pharmacodynamic investigations (3). For some time big hopes were put on pharmacogenetics to help explain inter-individual variability in drug response. It is now realized that variability may occur over time and relate to influences from both inborn as well as environmental factors, and that a more multifactorial approach is needed for complex biological systems (4). Examples of important use of TDM comprise treatment of epilepsy, infection, psychiatric disease and immunosuppression after transplantation (1,5,6). Analytical methods for TDM were using immunochemical, HPLC and GC techniques for long time, but this has recently, but slowly, been challenged by LC-MS techniques (7). One good example of this is methods for the immunosuppressive drugs tacrolimus, ciclosporin, sirolimus and everolimus (8,9). LC-MS methods have offered significant improvements in the quality of analytical method performance. It has been demonstrated that LC-MS offer improvement in accuracy, precision and cost-effectiveness, and also can be made robust. With the use of LC-MS in LC-tandem MS SRM mode multi-component methods can be constructed with unique combination of selectivity and sensitivity. Analytical method demands in TDM are set by the requirements of accuracy, cost-effectiveness, rapid reporting and robustness in a routine laboratory environment.

The pain of pain: Challenges of animal behavior models

Berend Olivier has had a long-standing interest in the utility of animal models for a wide variety of therapeutic indications. His work has spanned multiple types of models, blending ethological, or species typical and naturalistic behaviors, along with methodologies based on learned behavior. He has consistently done so, from an analytical as well as predictive perspective, and has made multiple contributions while working in both the pharmaceutical industry and within an academic institution. Although focused primarily on psychiatric disorders, Berend has conducted research in the area of pain in humans and in animals, demonstrating an expansive appreciation for the breadth, scope and significance of the science and applications of the discipline of pharmacology to these diverse areas. This review focuses on the use of animal models in pain research from the perspective of the long-standing deficiencies in the development of therapeutics in this area and from a preclinical perspective where the translational weaknesses have been quite problematic. The challenges confronting animal models of pain, however, are not unique to this area of research, as they cut across several therapeutic areas. Despite the deficiencies, failures and concerns, existing animal models of pain continue to be of widespread use and are essential to progress in pain research as well as in other areas. Although not focusing on specific animal models of pain, this paper seeks to examine general issues facing the use of these models. It does so by exploring alternative approaches which capture recent developments, which build upon principles and concepts we have learned from Berend׳s contributions, and which provide the prospect of helping to address the absence of novel therapeutics in this area.

A Historical View and Vision into the Future of the Field of Safety Pharmacology.

Professor Gerhard Zbinden recognized in the 1970s that the standards of the day for testing new candidate drugs in preclinical toxicity studies failed to identify acute pharmacodynamic adverse events that had the potential to harm participants in clinical trials. From his vision emerged the field of safety pharmacology, formally defined in the International Conference on Harmonization (ICH) S7A guidelines as "those studies that investigate the potential undesirable pharmacodynamic effects of a substance on physiological functions in relation to exposure in the therapeutic range and above." Initially, evaluations of small-molecule pharmacodynamic safety utilized efficacy models and were an ancillary responsibility of discovery scientists. However, over time, the relationship of these studies to overall safety was reflected by the regulatory agencies who, in directing the practice of safety pharmacology through guidance documents, prompted transition of responsibility to drug safety departments (e.g., toxicology). Events that have further shaped the field over the past 15 years include the ICH S7B guidance, evolution of molecular technologies leading to identification of new therapeutic targets with uncertain toxicities, introduction of data collection using more sophisticated and refined technologies, and utilization of transgenic animal models probing critical scientific questions regarding novel targets of toxicity. The collapse of the worldwide economy in the latter half of the first decade of the twenty-first century, continuing high rates of compound attrition during clinical development and post-approval and sharply increasing costs of drug development have led to significant strategy changes, contraction of the size of pharmaceutical organizations, and refocusing of therapeutic areas of investigation. With these changes has come movement away from dedicated internal safety pharmacology capability to utilization of capabilities within external contract research organizations. This movement has created the opportunity for the safety pharmacology discipline to come "full circle" and return to the drug discovery arena (target identification through clinical candidate selection) to contribute to the mitigation of the high rate of candidate drug failure through better compound selection decision making. Finally, the changing focus of science and losses in didactic training of scientists in whole animal physiology and pharmacology have revealed a serious gap in the future availability of qualified individuals to apply the principles of safety pharmacology in support of drug discovery and development. This is a significant deficiency that at present is only partially met with academic and professional society programs advancing a minimal level of training. In summary, with the exception that the future availability of suitably trained scientists is a critical need for the field that remains to be effectively addressed, the prospects for the future of safety pharmacology are hopeful and promising, and challenging for those individuals who want to assume this responsibility. What began in the early part of the new millennium as a relatively simple model of testing to assure the safety of Phase I clinical subjects and patients from acute deleterious effects on life-supporting organ systems has grown with experience and time to a science that mobilizes the principles of cellular and molecular biology and attempts to predict acute adverse events and those associated with long-term treatment. These challenges call for scientists with a broad range of in-depth scientific knowledge and an ability to adapt to a dynamic and forever changing industry. Identifying individuals who will serve today and training those who will serve in the future will fall to all of us who are committed to this important field of science.

Periodic review sessions contribute to student learning across the disciplines in pharmacology.

AbstractBackground: The teaching of the discipline of pharmacology is in constant flux. In order to meet the challenges of teaching pharmacology effectively we investigated a new teaching and learning strategy. Aim: Our aim was to investigate whether structured periodic review sessions could improve teaching and learning for students in a multidisciplinary undergraduate pharmacology module. Methods: Following each lecture students were asked to identify topics of difficulty in pharmacology using the one minute paper classroom assessment technique (CAT). Three review sessions were then introduced based on the problematic issues identified by students. They completed a pre- and post-review session MCQ examination to gauge improvements in their learning. Feedback was obtained from students at the end of the module regarding the acceptability, advantages and limitations of the CATs and the review sessions. Results: There was active participation by students in all thirteen CATs (71.15% ± 1.2%), three review sessions (78.3% ± 1.6%) and the end of module questionnaire (81%). A significant increase in student learning across all disciplines was observed in all three review sessions (**, p<0.01; ***,p<0.001 and **, p<0.01 for review sessions 1-3 respectively). The majority of students (99%) expressed the opinion that the review sessions enhanced their learning of pharmacology. A limitation expressed by some students was the necessity to complete multiple CATs to support each of the three review sessions. Conclusion: Strategically structured student directed review sessions which are carefully designed and executed are an interesting and effective educational tool for improving and complementing student learning across the disciplines in pharmacology.

The evolution of the discipline of pharmacology amid an era of global turbulence: the unique contributions of Otto Krayer (1899-1982).

This article revisits the life and times of Otto Krayer, a gifted scientist, teacher and administrator. His unique contributions to the discipline of pharmacology and to the biomedical sciences are chronicled in the wake of the political upheaval that crippled German science during the 1930s. The anti-scientific attitude that pervaded Germany at the time led to the exile of Krayer and many other eminent scientists. Their fate is recounted, as well as the negative impact on science caused by a National Socialist regime that blatantly disregarded basic scientific principles. The threat of intolerance and unethical behaviour still remains a key obstacle to scientific creativity.

Analysis of projects funded by NSFC in field of pharmacology of traditional Chinese medicine between 2010 to 2013 fiscal years

Projects which supported by National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC) in discipline of pharmacology of Chinese medicine between 2010 to 2013 financial years were reviewed. Based on these research items, new features and problems were summarized in this field.

ChemInform Abstract: Combinatorial Compounds and Drug Discovery

AbstractReview: 29 refs.

Conhecimento e atitudes de fisioterapeutas sobre fármacos anti-inflamatórios não esteroides

JUSTIFICATIVA E OBJETIVOS: No Brasil, estudos sobre o conhecimento de fisioterapeutas sobre a utilizacao dos farmacos anti-inflamatorios nao esteroides (AINES) sao raros ou mesmo inexistentes. O objetivo deste estudo foi investigar o conhecimento dos fisioterapeutas no municipio de Fortaleza sobre o seu uso. METODO: Utilizou-se um questionario com 18 perguntas estruturadas, englobando aspectos demograficos, conhecimento atual, pratica atual e a posicao do profissional quanto ao uso das AINES. RESULTADOS: Foram avaliados 119 profissionais, destes, 84,9% cursaram a disciplina de Farmacologia. Os resultados indicam a necessidade de maior educacao em relacao a legislacao corrente sobre a prescricao de farmacos, ja que 47,8% afirmam aconselhar, 3,3% prescrever e 21% recomendar o uso de AINES, atos nao permitidos para esses profissionais. CONCLUSAO: Identificou-se fragilidade no conhecimento do profissional fisioterapeuta acerca da utilizacao do uso dos AINES, ressaltando-se a nao identificacao de reacoes adversas, interacoes farmacologicas e o conhecimento sobre a legislacao.

Avram Goldstein: The Founder of Molecular Pharmacology

This special issue of Molecular Pharmacology is presented in honor of the founder of Molecular Pharmacology , Avram Goldstein, MD, who died on June 1, 2012, just a few weeks before his 93rd birthday. Avram strengthened the discipline of pharmacology during the second half of the last century by

Clinical pharmacology - one of the world health organization strategies in promoting rational use of medicines

The review covers the history of Clinical Pharmacology discipline origin from the thirties of the twentieth century until now. Establishment of the research group on clinical pharmacology by the World Health Organization in 1969 is surveyed. The current status of clinical pharmacology in Russia is described with emphasis on potential impact of the discipline on health system in the rational use of medicines and access to medicines. The connection between clinical pharmacology development and pharmaceutical regulation and «thalidomide tragedy» of the sixties is traced. The main developing sections of the discipline of Clinical Pharmacology: pharmacoepidemiology, pharmacoeconomics, pharmacogenetics, pharmacovigilance and drug clinical trials are presented. The objectives and phases of clinical trials, the current problems of their conduction - global and Russian - are presented. Perspectives for the clinical pharmacology development using the evidence-based medicine approach are reviewed. Review reveals the multidisciplinary nature of clinical pharmacology, its bridging role between the fundamental and practical clinical disciplines, and a close connection with the development of healthcare system. Problems of clinical pharmacologists’ training and employment are discussed. The review presents the current status and development of the discipline in different countries and in the Russian Federation with reference to the federal regulations and laws. The potential of clinical pharmacology as a research, teaching and practicing medical discipline allowing the healthcare system to ensure the rational use of medicines providing drug efficiency, safety and affordability for the population is described. The results of the own authors’ research of the impact of clinical pharmacology services introduction in the practice of internal diseases departments of Kazan municipal hospitals on the outcome of coronary heart disease are presented with consideration of the various confounding factors. Review explains the need for wide use of clinical pharmacology potentials on all levels of healthcare system, particularly for administrative decision-making

Do Faculty in Southern Indian Medical Colleges Support Animal use in Postgraduate Education More than in Undergraduate Education?

In India, animal experiments play an integral role in both undergraduate medical education (UGME) and postgraduate medical education (PGME) in the discipline of Pharmacology. Therefore, we aimed to compare the perceptions of pharmacology faculty members in southern India with regard to the use of animal experiments and alternatives in UGME and in PGME. We also determined the association between these perceptions and the socio-demographic characteristics of the participants. Pharmacology faculty members in 15 medical colleges located in southern India answered a 27-statement, 5-domain questionnaire with a total score of 108. The means of the total, domain and statement scores were analysed by the Wilcoxon signed-rank test. The mean total score obtained for faculty members (n = 52) was significantly higher (p < 0.001) for PGME (61.2/108) than that for UGME (51.9/108). Significant differences were observed in the mean total and in the domain scores for PGME when compared to UGME in all of the socio-demographic groups, except for male faculty members and those without an MD or doctoral degree. The mean individual statement scores also indicated that there is more support for animal use in PGME. Overall, it was apparent that pharmacology faculty members in southern Indian medical colleges support animal use in PGME more than in UGME. Increased awareness is required among faculty members concerning alternatives to animal experiments in medical education, especially in PGME.

EORTC-related new drug discovery and development activities: role of the Pharmacology and Molecular Mechanisms Group

The EORTC Pharmacology and Molecular Mechanism Group (PAMM) focuses on applied research to translate basic/fundamental research discoveries in cancer biology into new drug discovery and development. PAMM provides a unique platform on the pharmacology, pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics of drug effects, molecular mechanisms of anticancer agents, and drug-related molecular pathology. For these purposes the group stimulates the interaction between basic scientists and clinicians in order to perform translational research on the pharmacology and molecular mechanisms of anticancer agents in Europe. The group has extensive expertise in various disciplines of pharmacology and has developed standards for studies performed in conjunction with clinical trials equivalent to those of good laboratory practice (GLP). The group serves as master organization for other EORTC (sub-)committees in the maximal interest of these groups and of the EORTC as a whole. PAMM merged with Preclinical Therapeutics Models Group (PTMG) in 2000 and with the Screening and Pharmacology Group (SPG) in 2003. The latter group continued as the Drug Discovery Committee within PAMM. The groups have always been involved in the development of anticancer agents, evolving from platinum analogs, anthracyclines, nitrosoureas, antifolates in the 1980's, to drugs derived from natural sources (trabectedin, taxanes) in the 1990's, and anti-signaling drugs, DNA alkylators, in the last decade. Several of these drugs have been registered. Mechanistic studies focused on drug activation/inactivation, target (DNA, receptors) in relation to efficacy and toxicity such as with several antimetabolites (5-fluorouracil, methotrexate), topoisomerase inhibitors (irinotecan), tyrosine kinase inhibitors (imatinib), acridones (C-1311), etc. The group recently included pharmacogenetics in the identification of genetic polymorphisms in order to use this information for personalized therapy.

Pediatrics pharmacovigilance: need of a new sub-unit

Pharmacovigilance is a new discipline of pharmacology concerned with adverse drug reaction (ADR) monitoring. Being an emerging section, it gains widespread global popularity within a short span of time. Pediatrics is very special branch of medical science deals with innocent aspect of growing life. As most of their body physiology are varies in accordance to age, therefore ADRs detection needs special attention.

Integrating pharmacology and clinical pharmacology

I here reaffirm some of the points that I made in the manifesto for UK clinical pharmacology [1], in response to letters from others. Much of what I wrote in the manifesto addresses points that correspondents have made, but as some of the important points may not have been clear on a first reading, I shall reiterate them and add clarifications. I am surprised that Professor Page [2] should think that I have taken no cognizance of the erosion of the discipline of pharmacology in recent years. Nothing that I said, wrote or did, while I was President-Elect and President of the British Pharmacological Society (BPS) during 2006 to 2009, should have given that impression. If he doubts this, and my commitment to the integration of all pharmacological science across the clinical and non-clinical spectra, he may want to reread some of my articles in the newsletter of the BPS, previously called pA2, now called Pharmacology Matters[3, 4], and indeed the manifesto itself, where I wrote that ‘the importance of integrating pharmacology and clinical pharmacology cannot be overestimated’. In relation to this, I strongly believe that the distinction that many make between basic and applied science is a false dichotomy. As I wrote in the manifesto, ‘functions in biology emerge … as a result of integration of different components of relevant systems at different levels.’ This is true of pharmacology and clinical pharmacology. Although it is sometimes useful to refer separately to basic and applied science, it is the crosstalk between them, at all levels and from one level to another, that is important. I have recently had the opportunity to make these views known more widely, in my opening plenary lecture at WorldPharma 2010, the 16th World Congress of the International Union of Basic and Clinical Pharmacology (IUPHAR). The contents of that lecture have been posted on the BPS's website [5].

Neuroimmune Pharmacology as a Component of Pharmacology in Medical School Curriculum

An introduction to the discipline of pharmacology is a standard part of the scientific foundation of medical school curricula. Neuroimmune pharmacology is a new subtopic that integrates fundamental concepts of neuroscience, immunology, infectious disease, and pharmacology. The integration of these areas is important to medical training in view of the growing concern over neurodegenerative diseases and cognitive disorders. This article introduces a submodule and concomitant syllabus for inclusion of neuroimmune pharmacology as a component of a pharmacology curriculum. The introductory lectures of neuroimmune pharmacology will concentrate on the role of the immune system in (1) schizophrenia and major depression; (2) neurodegenerative disorders; and (3) drug addiction. Emphasis will be placed on the competencies of critical thinking, problem solving, learning interest, and effectiveness of medical students. Problem-based learning and case study discussions will also be applied.

A response to: ‘A manifesto for clinical pharmacology from principles to practice’ by Jeff Aronson

I read with interest the recent provocative article entitled ‘A manifesto for clinical pharmacology from principles to practice’ from Jeffrey Aronson that appeared in the Journal [1]. Dr Aronson defines a clinical pharmacologist as ‘a medically qualified practitioner who teaches, does research, frames policy and gives information and advice about the actions and proper use of medicines in humans and implements that knowledge in clinical practice’. Dr Aronson goes on in his article to say he prefers ‘to refer to those who contribute to the discipline, but are not medically qualified as applied pharmacologists’. He further states that ‘without medical training there are many areas in which such individuals cannot fulfil all the aspects of the discipline of clinical pharmacology and are therefore not clinical pharmacologists’. Laudable as Dr Aronson's attempts to provide a ‘manifesto for clinical pharmacology’ may be, and certainly he has done much to highlight the poor prescribing behaviour of physicians in the UK, his article fails to address the ‘Elephant in the Room’ which is the erosion of the discipline of pharmacology over the last 25 years in both the UK and elsewhere in the world [2]. Pharmacology is defined as the ‘Science that deals with the actions, mechanisms of action, uses, adverse effects and fate of drugs in animals and humans’[3]. I would argue that the distinction between clinical and basic (or applied) pharmacology used by Dr Aronson and that is used by a number of societies throughout the world (including the British Pharmacological Society of which Dr Aronson is a Past President), is both artificial and divisive and such divisions have contributed to the dilution of the discipline of pharmacology at a time when there is increasingly a call for a more integrated approach to understanding diseases and treatments. This dilution is continuing with the increasing use of the term ‘translational medicine’. Surely pharmacology in its widest sense, from identifying new targets for drugs through the development of such drugs into safe and effective medicines, and ultimately ensuring their appropriate clinical use is the best example of translational medicine we have. It is also worth noting that the very Journal Dr Aronson chooses to publish his manifesto for Clinical Pharmacology actually states under the ‘General Information’ section at the front of the Journal that ‘the British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology is published monthly by Blackwell Publishing Ltd for the British Pharmacological Society. Papers on all aspects of drug action in man will be considered’. There is certainly no clarification that one has to be medically qualified or clinically trained to submit work of relevance to drug action in man. Surely pharmacologists of all persuasions should be working hard to restore the importance of our discipline which has done so much for medical science and mankind over the last two centuries, rather than arguing about terminology of one set of pharmacologists over another based on what degrees they have. After all most pharmacologists by definition have the common interest of drugs and how they work and their appropriate use as the core reason for getting out of bed in the morning (irrespective of whether they have a medical degree or not). There are many of my clinical colleagues who would surely satisfy point 2 in the summary on page 3 of Aronson's article as they are specialists in their chosen therapeutic and disease areas, but who certainly would not label themselves as clinical pharmacologists. Surely any manifesto should be for pharmacology and encourage basic scientists to work more closely with relevant clinical colleagues (whether they call themselves clinical pharmacologists or not) in order to expedite the discovery of new medicines, which sadly is in decline, and to ensure that such medicines are then used appropriately. Maybe the time has come to ditch the term clinical pharmacology (and indeed other such divisive terms such as molecular pharmacology) and we should return to the use of the term pharmacology to cover our subject area. After all whether you work to understand the interaction of a drug with its receptor at a molecular level or the use of such a drug in patients, the common interest between us is the drug and surely it is also drugs that distinguish pharmacologists from physiologists or many other branches of medical science.

Herbal medicines and forensic investigations

Alternative medicines, including herbal therapies, are becoming increasingly popular in Western countries, with herbal treatments now being used by up to 30% of the population in the United States, with higher use in patients with HIV/AIDs and depression [1, 2]. Herbal remedies may be based on complex medical traditions spanning many hundreds of years, as in traditional Chinese and Indian systems such as Ayurveda [3]. There is no doubt that herbal therapies may have excellent clinical outcomes, and aspirin derived from tree bark or digitalis from foxglove leaves are two well-recognised examples where the active ingredient has been demonstrated to be highly effective. A problem that now occurs in Western countries is that traditional village-based activities have been expanded into the global marketplace and this may bring with it difficulties in controlling the quality, composition and purity of herbal supplies [4]. A similar problem of substitution and contamination has been found in certain illicit drugs where quality controls are lacking [5]. Although contamination with heavy metals and pesticides has been reported, the focus of this editorial is on the possible role played by herbal medicines in the mechanism of death in cases that come to medicolegal attention, and the difficulties that exist in assessing this. Usually when an unexpected death occurs in the community investigating police officers are rigorous in documenting prescription medications that are found at the scene. The pathologist also has a high index of suspicion for the possibility of drug overdose or interaction. Unfortunately the same process does not apply to herbal remedies that are often regarded as ‘natural’ products and therefore unlikely to cause problems. As well, at least 66% of people taking herbal medicines or supplements do not report this to their physician, and so there may be no documentation of their use in the medical record [6]. For this reason (in our experience) the type of herbal substances being taken by the deceased and the dosage are usually not recorded, and therefore are not investigated further. An additional problem with herbal substances is that laboratory identification of organic molecules is often extremely difficult, even when there is clear evidence of recent use [7]. One problem that arises with herbal remedies is the addition of prescription drugs to enhance their efficacy, as this may interact with prescribed medications. Examples include the addition of steroids [8] that may be contraindicated in individuals taking non-steroidal anti-inflammatory agents. The combination of herbal therapies adulterated with both steroids and anti-inflammatory drugs such as indomethacin or phenylbutazone and could initiate or exacerbate peptic ulcer disease with fatal hemorrhage. It would not be usual to suspect a possible role for herbal medicines in such a death. Other problems arise when there is interference with the actions of prescribed medications by herbal remedies. For example, certain patients are prescribed warfarin to reduce their risk of recurrent pulmonary thromboembolism or systemic embolization from atrial fibrillation. The action of warfarin is reduced by St Johns Wort [9]. However, this would rarely be tested for in the event of these patients’ deaths from thromboembolism, despite St Johns Wort I. Musgrave Discipline of Pharmacology, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, Australia

PharmEcology: A pharmacological approach to understanding plant-herbivore interactions: an introduction to the symposium

A central goal in understanding the ecology and evolution of animals is to identify factors that constrain or expand breadth of diet. Selection of diet in many animals is often constrained by chemical deterrents (i.e., secondary metabolites) in available food items. The integration of chemistry and ecology has led to a significant understanding of the chemical complexity of prey (e.g., animals, plants, and algae) and the resultant foraging behavior of consumers. However, most of the literature on chemical defenses of marine and terrestrial prey lacks a mechanistic understanding of how consumers tolerate, or avoid, chemically-defended foods. In order to understand ecological patterns of foraging and co-evolutionary relationships between prey and consumers, we must advance our understanding of the physiological mechanisms responsible for chemical interactions. Such mechanistic studies require the integration of the discipline of pharmacology with ecology, which we call "PharmEcology." Pharmacology provides the tools and insight to investigate the fate (what the body does to a chemical) and action (what a chemical does to the body) of chemicals in living organisms, whereas ecology provides the insight into the interactions between organisms (e.g., herbivores) and their environment (e.g., plants). Although, the general concepts of pharmacology were introduced to ecologists studying plant-herbivore interactions over 30 years ago, the empirical use of pharmacology to understand mechanisms of chemical interactions has remained limited. Moreover, many of the recent biochemical, molecular and technical advances in pharmacology have yet to be utilized by ecologists. The PharmEcology symposium held at a meeting of the Society for Integrative and Comparative Biology in January of 2009 was developed to define novel research directions at the interface of pharmacology and ecology.

Real World Problems in Developing a Critical Thinking Approach to Learning in Pharmacology

Abstract: In science courses that require significant recall of facts and information it is often easy to neglect key graduate skills such as higher order thinking skills and critical evaluation of both data and text. Furthermore, student engagement can decline when the relevance of the learning material is not immediately evident to students. Therefore a suite of innovative and distinctive activities to promote learning in the discipline of pharmacology has been prepared. Tutorial problems were designed using materials from a variety of sources to extend student learning from recall and understanding to higher levels of thinking (including application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation of information). A diverse range of source material such as newspapers, journal articles and television programs to determine contemporary issues in pharmacology, therapeutics or general medicine have been used. The study of science to societal problems is one way of engaging students. Students are challenged to review the material and complete exercises that require significant understanding of pharmacological principles. Course evaluations following these classes showed that students found the way problems were structured helped them to understand concepts in pharmacology and provided them with a range of intellectual challenges. Over the three years that critical thinking activities were introduced into the curriculum, the program consistently obtained a score >5.6/7 for effectiveness of the teaching methods and > 5.8/7 for effectiveness of the course in helping students to learn. Having had an opportunity to reflect on student performance, the approach outlined above advantages students to acquire a deep understanding of the subject material.

Neuroimmune Pharmacology Expanding in Asia Pacific Rim

A dominant feature of the 21st century’s global economy is collaboration among nations in interdisciplinary research. During the past two decades, sustained and significant economic growth in the Asia Pacific regions, notably in China, India, and Japan, has made the region an attractive area for expanded and new collaborative activities. Interdisciplinary research like those that interface neuroscience, immunology, and pharmacology disciplines, not only join research areas, but also nations. Thus, what is represented through the Journal of Neuroimmune Pharmacology in science is joined at a more global level. Indeed, the prevalence of neurological diseases such as stroke and neurodegenerative disorders, including Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s disease (AD and PD), and multiple sclerosis has increased significantly as global populations age. Specifically, the number of cases of dementia in the developed world is projected to rise from 13.5 million in 2000 to 21.2 million in 2025 and to 36.7 million in 2050. Currently, the number of deaths caused by AD is similar to the number of deaths caused by stroke, and both rank as the third most common causes of death. As the prevalence of AD grows, so does the cost to a nation. According to the report, “An Estimate of the Total Worldwide Societal Costs of Dementia in 2005,” published in the April 2007 issue of Alzheimer’s & Dementia, the total worldwide cost of dementia care is estimated to be US$315.4 billion annually. Researchers report the highest costs occur in North America and Europe. In individual countries, the total cost in the US ranks highest at $76 billion, followed by Japan at $34 billion, and China at $28 billion. In the summer of 2006, more than 300 scientists from Australia, China, and the US experienced in the areas of neurology, neuropharmacology, and neuroimmunology gathered in Shanghai, China to enhance collaboration in these important interdisciplinary research areas. The International Neurological Disease Symposium was organized by Dr. Sheng-Di Chen, Dr. Weidong Le (China), Dr. Guoyuan Yang, and Dr. Jialin Zheng (USA). Shanghai is a prominent international center for finance, business, science, and J Neuroimmune Pharmacol (2007) 2:233–235 DOI 10.1007/s11481-007-9080-4