Disaster Response Teams Research Articles

Gender-Based Violence After A Natural Disaster

Introduction:Gender-based violence is endemic across the world. The current evidence suggests that gender-based violence increases after natural disasters. Factors leading to this increase following natural disasters include physical displacement, loss of community supports and protections, economic hardship, and gendered differences in coping. Multiple agencies are mobilized in response to natural disasters, however, personnel are often not adequately trained to recognize or address gender-based violence.Aim:To identify challenges faced by disaster responders in recognizing and responding to gender-based violence in disaster settings, and to advocate for gender-sensitive training prior to deployment by responding personnel.Methods:The world’s literature was reviewed to identify challenges for disaster teams in recognizing and responding to gender-based violence, and to identify principles of training which may be applicable for pre-deployment competency building by disaster response personnelResults:Disaster response programs should ensure: Collection of data to identify vulnerable populationsEstablishment of procedures for monitoring and reportingInclusion of female staff at all levels of planning and responseImplementation of holistic services including physical and psychosocial care and legal responseSafety in designing accommodations and distribution centersPre-Deployment training should include: Gender-sensitive approach, knowledge of prevalence and impact of gender-based violenceFamiliarity with behaviors and conditions associated with gender-based violenceNon-judgmental, supportive, and validating approach to inquiry and responseFamiliarity with risk assessment toolsMobilization of social supportsKnowledge of resources, including medical and legal servicesDiscussion:Natural disasters are destabilizing events which expose vulnerable populations, particularly women, to increased violence. Disaster response teams should be adequately trained on the prevalence and impact of gender-based violence to ensure gender-sensitive interventions. Standard training of response personnel can ensure adequate identification of victims of gender-based violence and referral to appropriate services.

Real-Time GIS for Health Disaster Response in the Largest Archipelagic Country

Introduction:Besides being located on the Pacific Ring of Fire, Indonesia is the largest archipelago country in the world. Some parts of the country are not very accessible. It raises difficulties in controlling and monitoring a disaster response mission remotely in real-time. Muhammadiyah, the Indonesian non-governmental organization (NGO) that has been responding to disaster since 1919, used Geographic Information Systems (GIS) for Health Disaster Response (HDR) in the Lombok Earthquake 2018, in cooperation with ESRI Indonesia, as one alternative to disaster response controlling and monitoring.Aim:To show the benefit of using real-time GIS for HDR in an archipelago country.Methods:While responding to the disaster in Lombok, the Muhammadiyah Health Disaster Response Team was collecting data of patient, medication, problem, need, location, and resource with computers and smartphones, inputting the data that was forwarded to the ArcGIS platform. The Health Disaster Response Team coordinator and Muhammadiyah Board monitored and analyzed the health response through the GIS dashboard in Yogyakarta, 652km far from Lombok Island.Results:Using real-time GIS has been useful for disaster response. It was efficient by cutting flight and other transport costs, connected by the internet, and communicative by graphic and map dashboard. It was a green approach since it was paperless, and analysis-friendly by real-time data compilation and computation.Discussion:One of the big gaps in disaster response monitoring seems to be real-time data. Especially in an archipelago country, it is costly, time-consuming, and resource consuming. Daily big data may be frustrating and can become “white paper syndrome.” One of the good approaches to that is GIS Web services although it must be realized that the internet connection in a rural area can be another challenge. It can be solved by in-gadget data memory that can be delivered while the internet connection is available.

Hospital C.O.D.E (Clinical, Operational, Disaster, and Emergency) Terminology

Introduction:Healthcare facilities frequently use disaster codes as a way to communicate with employees that an emergency or incident is occurring. As increasing numbers of providers work at multiple facilities, and healthcare systems continue to build disaster response teams and protocols covering multiple facilities, standardization of disaster code terminology is critical. A lack of consistency in terminology can potentially have a devastating impact on the understanding and response of visiting or relief staff.Aim:To evaluate the level of standardization in terminology of disaster codes in healthcare facilities.Methods:A convenience sample was taken from a private Facebook™ group consisting of emergency department nurses from a wide range of facilities. The Facebook™ group was asked to share their hospital disaster codes. Of the 40,179 total members, 78 commented, including 55 photos of quick reference badges, and the rest were descriptions/lists of codes. One badge was excluded due to a blurry photograph. Results were collated and analyzed for trends and standardization.Results:The most common codes were, “Code Red” for fire (72.7%), “Code Blue” for cardiac arrest (44.9%), “Code Silver” for active shooter/weapons event (37.7%) and “Code Orange” for hazardous materials (33.8%). There were 168 instances of a code term being associated with a particular event by five or fewer facilities. Two facilities used numeric systems, with 11 using plain language descriptions.Discussion:Disaster code language is inconsistent. Few of the codes were consistently assigned to the same meaning, and none were universal. Color coding was the most common method, but there was little consistency even within color code systems. Additionally, some facilities used a combination of colors, numbers, terms, and plain language. Healthcare facilities should embrace standard terminology and create a consistent language for disaster codes to enhance response capabilities and medical security.

Predicting high-magnitude, low-frequency crop losses using machine learning: an application to cereal crops in Ethiopia

Timely and accurate agricultural impact assessments for droughts are critical for designing appropriate interventions and policy. These assessments are often ad hoc, late, or spatially imprecise, with reporting at the zonal or regional level. This is problematic as we find substantial variability in losses at the village-level, which is missing when reporting at the zonal level. In this paper, we propose a new data fusion method—combining remotely sensed data with agricultural survey data—that might address these limitations. We apply the method to Ethiopia, which is regularly hit by droughts and is a substantial recipient of ad hoc imported food aid. We then utilize remotely sensed data obtained near mid-season to predict substantial crop losses of greater than or equal to 25% due to drought at the village level for five primary cereal crops. We train machine learning models to predict the likelihood of losses and explore the most influential variables. On independent samples, the models identify substantial drought loss cases with up to 81% accuracy by mid- to late-September. We believe the proposed models could be used to help monitor and predict yields for disaster response teams and policy makers, particularly with further development of the models and integration of soon-to-be available high-resolution, remotely sensed data such as the Harmonized Landsat Sentinel (HLS) data set.

Challenges of disaster training: implication for federal and state university libraries in Nigeria

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to identify the challenges affecting disaster training in federal and state university libraries in Southwest Nigeria with a view to finding ways of overcoming them.Design/methodology/approachHaving adopted the descriptive research design, 14 university libraries (seven each of federal and state) were selected from the Southwest geo-political zone of Nigeria. The total enumeration sampling technique was employed. Questionnaire and interview methods were used for data collection. The three research questions that guided the study were analyzed using descriptive statistics such as mean, standard deviation and ranking. Judgments were drawn using real limit of numbers and 2.50 as criterion mean.FindingsResults emanated from the study showed that university libraries in the studied region are more equipped to fight fire disaster than any other emergency which is why fire drills and exercises are the prevailing disaster training received by library staff. It was also found that inadequate disaster facilities and equipment as well as poor funding were the greatest challenges confronting disaster training. The provision of adequate disaster facilities and equipment with the constitution of disaster prevention and response team was found as the most potent strategy for addressing the identified challenges.Originality/valueThe study lends strong empirical evidence for the underlining factors affecting disaster training in federal and state university libraries as well as academic libraries in general. The strategies for addressing the identified challenges are of more significance.

Identifying optimal earthquake evacuation routes using genetic algorithm

The disaster response team of Metropolitan Manila prepares for the 'Big One,' focusing on information dissemination as to what must be done when the earthquake happens. In order to make a quick and safe evacuation, it is necessary to formulate a clear-cut evacuation plan, specifically, to create evacuation routes. In this study, earthquake evacuation was simulated from Philippine General Hospital (PGH) to Rizal Park to identify optimal evacuation routes quantitatively using genetic algorithm (GA) and geospatial data. The problem was treated as a multi-objective optimization problem wherein the evacuation distance was minimized and the arrival probability maximized. Road networks were mapped using Geographical Information System (GIS) and information on road lengths and road blockage probability were imported to python. GA was used to search for optimal evacuation routes. The algorithm yielded a front of Pareto-optimal solutions. Subsequently, analytic hierarchical process (AHP) was applied to select the best optimal evacuation route according to preference. The best route identified has a distance of 1089.32 m and an arrival probability of 0.504. The model contributes to the preparation and planning of evacuation in the event of the 'Big One' ensuring the safest and most efficient evacuation route.

Organizational identity consistency in a discontinuous corporate volunteering program

Abstract: Despite increasing interest in discontinuous organizations and new forms of work, our understanding of how iterative organizations achieve organizational identity consistency over time remains limited. On the basis of our analysis of the Disaster Response Teams organization, a corporate volunteering program of Deutsche Post DHL, we identify four organizational enablers fostering identity consistency that primarily occur during phases of dormancy: connecting organizational episodes, preparing organizational episodes, expanding organizational interaction, and alternative organizational interaction. We illustrate the positive role of organizational growth through boundary expansion as well as the importance of emotionally intense experiences and future-orientation in achieving organizational identity consistency across single deployments in a corporate volunteering program. In addition, we point to the paradoxical role of discontinuity, which requires more intensive organizational identity work to bridge phases of dormancy but, at the same time, may represent a resource for identity work.

Disaster Response Research Development in Japan

Japan is a country of natural disasters and many lessons have been learnt in the past. The Disaster Medical Assistant Team (DMAT) system is one of those. After the 11 March 2011 Great Eastern Japan Earthquake and Tsunami, Japan experienced unprecidented disturbance of people’s life including distruction of infrastructures, mass evacuation and collapse of communities. Everything went mess from immediate shortage of life supporting facilities to loss of future prospects. The importance of the unified command system is also a lesson learned from the past disasters such as the Kobe earthquake. However, there is still a gap in tools for decision makers to acquire timely information about public health status of affected areas. For example, there are no standardised tools to evaluate the consequences of long-term evacuation on emotional and physical health. The lack of such epidemiological instruments makes it difficult to perform evidence based public health. Absence of such tools may also have hampered the participation of public health specialits into disaster response teams. In Japan, the government moved to establish a public health response team, namely Disaster Health Emergency Assistance Team or DHEAT, in order to quickly provide prompt public health survices during and after the disaster. To add an environmental component to such an effort, the National Institute for Environmental Studies started a programme to implement epidemiological tools that can be readily used from immediately after the disaster onset to decades long recovery periods for assessing general and specific environmental exposures and their effects on affected people. This presentation will focus on the Japanese endeavour to develop disaster epidemiology tools and its collaborative works with the US National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences.

Applying Feedback Analysis on Citizen’s Participation System of CSFLU Barangays on Disaster Preparedness

Various initiatives through the use of ICT paved the way to better improve the services of the government during disaster situations. It helped in the preparation and mitigation process during disaster situations through different mediums such as Social Networking Sites and SMS to disseminate information. However, data that are gathered from this medium are not sufficient to address the problem experienced by the citizens, thus the concept of Citizen’s participation system was developed. The objective of the study is to provide a mechanism or tool for barangay officials and the city government to strategically plan preventive measures during times of disasters based on the citizen’s perspective, data analytics gathered from sentiments, suggestions, and feedback of the citizens was analysed using of Feedback Analysis in order to provide accuracy of data which is needed by the disaster response team that will be generated through data analytics.

Disaster Nursing Knowledge and Competencies Among Nursing University Students Participated in Relief Activities Following the 2016 Kumamoto Earthquakes.

ObjectiveThis study examined disaster nursing knowledge and competencies among university nursing students who participated in relief activities following the 2016 Kumamoto earthquakes.MethodsParticipants were university nursing students involved in disaster relief activities. Of the 260 individuals to whom a self-report questionnaire was distributed at nursing universities and hospitals located in Kyushu, southwestern Japan, 201 participants returned the questionnaires by mail (response rate 77.3%), of which 108 questionnaires were complete (valid response rate 41.5%). Questions involved experiences related to their volunteer activities, their motive for volunteering, type of relief activities performed, and use of disaster nursing knowledge and competencies.ResultsWe identified four categories of disaster nursing competencies: “understanding and implementation of assistance to victims in collaboration with other members of the disaster response team,” “understanding the natural disaster’s influence on victims,” “ethical practice in a disaster recovery area,” and “understanding of their role within the disaster relief organization.” Those who had completed a disaster nursing program had superior measures of performance across all four competencies compared with those who had not yet completed the program.ConclusionsFour domains of disaster nursing knowledge and competencies used by university nursing students during the 2016 Kumamoto earthquake relief activities were identified. Those who had completed a disaster nursing program had higher competencies than were those who were either currently or not yet enrolled in it.

Training Community Health Workers to Enhance Disaster Resilience.

Community health workers (CHWs) have significant potential to contribute to public health in the United States by promoting disaster preparedness, speeding postdisaster recovery, and building disaster resilience in their communities. To maximize this potential, however, they must undergo rigorous and relevant training. As part of the Gulf Region Health Outreach Program, an appropriate curriculum was developed and delivered in several training sessions conducted from 2013 to 2016. This article provides insights into the primary issues associated with such training and offers a detailed elaboration of the basic and specialized curricula as presented and adapted over the course of the program. We present lessons learned from these training experiences, as reflected in participants' initial ratings and comments, training staff debriefings, and feedback from CHWs working in the field. Informed by this feedback, as well as additional research and conceptual development, we offer recommendations aimed at expanding and refining CHW training curricula in the areas of chronic disease, psychosocial symptoms, community resilience, and environmental health. In addition to curriculum changes, we review policy implications aimed at promoting and facilitating the inclusion of CHWs in disaster response and recovery teams.

The Team Assessment and Diagnostic Instrument (TADI): Validation of the Korean Version and Development of a Brief Form for Disaster Response Teams

재난위기대응은 전문가 개인의 수준이 아닌 조직 차원에서 이루어져야 하고 효율적인 재난위기대응을 위해서는 팀의 효율성 증진이 중요하다. 팀 평가 및 진단 척도(Team Assessment and Diagnostic Instrument, TADI)는 효율적인 팀 과제 수행을 위해 필요한 팀 내 의사소통 및 정보 공유 정도를 측정하기 위해 개발된 척도이다. 본 연구에서는 효율적인 팀 단위의 활동이 요구되는 재난위기대응팀을 대상으로 팀 평가 및 진단 척도(TADI)를 타당화하고 단축형을 제안하였다. 연구결과 팀 평가 및 진단 척도(TADI)의 신뢰도와 타당도는 모두 적합하였고, 요인분석 결과 단일요인이 추출되었다. 본 연구에서는 요인분석 결과를 바탕으로 10문항으로 구성된 단축형 척도를 제안하였다. 연구결과, 단축형 척도는 총 42문항으로 구성된 전체 척도와 유사한 수준의 신뢰도와 타당도를 보였다. 본 연구의 결과는 팀 평가 및 진단 척도(TADI)가 재난위기대응팀의 효율적인 수행을 위한 팀 역량을 평가하는 신뢰롭고 타당한 도구로 사용될 수 있음을 보여준다.Disaster and crisis responses must be approached at the organizational level, not at the individual level, and thus promoting team effectiveness is critical in disaster management. The Team Assessment and Diagnostic Instrument (TADI) measures team characteristics associated with team effectiveness such as information sharing and effective communication. The purpose of this study was to validate the Korean version of TADI for a sample of disaster response teams and develop a brief form. Factor analysis revealed a single factor for the 42-item TADI which had good reliability and validity. A brief version of TADI, which was developed based on the results of the factor analysis, consisted of only 10 items but its reliability and validity were as comparable as the full version. The findings of the study indicated that both the full and brief versions of the Team Assessment and Diagnostic Instrument (TADI) are valid and reliable instruments for disaster response team assessment in Korea.

Impact of Kashmir floods on the libraries

PurposeThis paper aims to highlight the damage suffered by the prominent libraries of Kashmir during September 2014 floods. The work provide an insight about the response and recovery measures being taken during and after the floods respectively in ten prominent libraries of Jammu & Kashmir [six Academic libraries (S.P. College Library, Women’s College Library, Govt. Degree College Library – Bemina, Amar Singh College Library, Gandhi Memorial College Library and College of Education Library); three Special libraries (J&K Academy of Art, Culture & Languages Library – Srinagar, Govt. Medical College Library – Srinagar and J&K High Court Library) and one Public library (Sri Pratap Singh library)].Design/methodology/approachA variety of data collection tools and techniques such as interview, questionnaire, observation, etc., were used to collect the data. The collected data have been tabulated and analyzed to derive meaningful conclusions and findings as per the set objectives of the study.FindingsThe results reveal that although libraries in Kashmir are prone to disasters like floods; yet, none of the library seems to be prepared to bear or cope such a disaster. The findings provide a gloomy picture of libraries when it comes to the measures being taken by these libraries during and after the floods to protect their resources. The paper highlights the inefficiency and incapability of libraries (in terms of disaster management) by finding that most of the libraries are without a disaster response and recovery plan as well as a disaster response and recovery team. The study recommends that some tangible measures if taken can save precious resources hosted in libraries.Practical implicationsThe current study can help the stakeholders to chalk out scientific and systematic policy and plans for library and information centers that can be executed with minimum of fuss and anarchy.Originality/valueThe study offers working knowledge to library professional on ground for effective management of assets and resources in pre- and post-disaster scenario.

General Dental Practitioners as Potential Responders to Disaster Scenario in a Highly Disaster-prone Area: An Explorative Study.

The aim of this study is to obtain insights pertaining to disaster management among Indian general dental practitioners (GDPs). All GDPs in Mangaluru city, Karnataka, India, were included in the present study. Their willingness to participate in disaster management and their objective knowledge, attitude, behavior, and perceived effectiveness related to disaster management were assessed by a structured, pretested, self-administered questionnaire. Demographic information was also collected. Overall, 101 GDPs volunteered for the study, and 96.04% of respondents were willing to participate in disaster management. Mean knowledge, attitude, behavior, and perceived effectiveness scores were 52.65, 79.60, 41.55, and 64.20% respectively. Religion (odds ratio [OR] = -0.194, p = 0.022), marital status (OR = -0.222, p = 0.040), attachment to college (OR = -0.256, p = 0.037), familiarity with standard operating procedures (SOP; OR = -0.502, p = 0.000), and knowledge (OR = 0.265, p = 0.003) were significant predictors of behavior. The GDPs reported knowledge and behavior scores which were low, while their attitude and willingness to participate were high. Demographic determinants might be critical indicators in disaster management scenario among GDPs. The present study has crucial implications for policymakers and curriculum changes to integrate dentists effectively into disaster response teams. As responsible members of the society, the dental fraternity has critical contributions to make toward disaster mitigation. Integration of GDPs in a multidisciplinary team managing disasters might be crucial, especially in highly disaster-prone areas, such as India, with a definite paucity of resources.

An integrated methodology to develop a standard for landslide early warning systems

Abstract. Landslides are one of the most widespread and commonly occurring natural hazards. In regions of high vulnerability, these complex hazards can cause significant negative social and economic impacts. Considering the worldwide susceptibility to landslides, it is necessary to establish a standard for early warning systems specific to landslide disaster risk reduction. This standard would provide guidance in conducting landslide detection, prediction, interpretation, and response. This paper proposes a new standard consisting of seven sub-systems for landslide early warning. These include risk assessment and mapping, dissemination and communication, establishment of the disaster preparedness and response team, development of an evacuation map, standardized operating procedures, installation of monitoring and warning services, and the building of local commitment to the operation and maintenance of the entire program. This paper details the global standard with an example of its application from Central Java, one of 20 landslide-prone provinces in Indonesia that have used this standard since 2012.

Studi Fenomenologi : Kesiapan Perawat Pada Fase Respon Bencana Banjir Sambelia di Nusa Tenggara Barat

WestNusa T en ggara has a lot potential for disaster. The earthquake was recorded as the most frequent disaster; but floods are disasters that give the most serious impact. Sambeliaoods occur almost every year, but the Worst occurred in 2012. Disaster Response Team or teams of health requires the involvement of the majority o_/"nurses to meet the needs of individuals, groups or communities. To perform its role_ fully, the nurse must be able to prepare themselves physically and mentally. Most nursesfelt confusion, anxiety, and emotional tension while in the disaster area. Thepurpose ofthis study was to explore the readiness o/‘nurses in the response phase ofthe_ flood disaster in Nusa Tenggara Barat.Penelitian Sambelia uses qualitative research design Hermeneutics Phenomenology approach. Participants who participated in this study as many as jive people Belanting PHC nurses who have had the experience ofbeing the health team Sambeliajlood. The results o/interview transcripts were analyzed using analysis ofhermeneutic according Diekelmann, et. al (1 989). The analysis/span>nds 7 themes, namely positivefeelings toward the task, negative jeelings about the task, the nurse 's perception about the assignment, the assignment as a form of responsibility, a form of awareness, preparation necessary, this research is expected pengobatan.Berdasarkan services services institutions and agencies can plan repairs and improvements disasterpreparedness, especially to maximize the role of nurses through the policies of local governments with clear regulations.Keywords .' Readiness Nurse, Phase Response, Flood.

Enhancing Child Health and Welfare Following Disasters and Public Health Emergencies in Schools and University Health Centers

Our nation’s families trust schools to protect the health and welfare of their children while in the educational setting. This task has become increasingly difficult to accomplish given the multitude of hazards that threaten our schools and the people in them on a daily basis. The frequency and intensity of natural disasters such as hurricanes, earthquakes, tornadoes and floods is increasing. Human-made disaster events such as active shooters, bomb threats, and other acts of terrorism are persistent challenges for preparedness and response and have been in the light of media attention with increasing frequency in the past several years. The role of the nurse working in a school or university health center as a member of the disaster response team is critical to the successful management of disasters.

The scent of death

Mary Cablk and her dog Inca spent a week last September searching the ashes of remote California towns ravaged by forest fires. They were looking for people who had died as their homes and everything in them burned to the ground. Cablk had just finished training Inca, an 18-month-old Malinois, to alert her to the presence of odors wafting from human remains. The weeklong trip from their home base in Reno, Nev., to help a California disaster response team was one of Inca’s first major assignments, literally a trial-by-fire. When they arrived at one home reduced almost entirely to ash, instead of the odor of burnt wood and smoke, Cablk and Inca were enveloped by the scent of a propane tank leak. Cablk’s heart sank. All she could smell was the sulfurous stink of ethyl mercaptan, a compound added to propane to warn humans of a tank leak. A dog’s

Search and rescue and disaster relief robots: has their time finally come?

Purpose – This paper aims to discuss search and rescue (SAR) and disaster relief robot developments, trials and applications and to answer the question posed in the title. Design/methodology/approach – Following a short introduction, this first describes Integrated Components for Assisted Rescue and Unmanned Search operations, a recent, collaborative, European research project, and euRathlon, a major robotics competition. It then highlights the role of the centre for robot-assisted search and rescue, and provides examples of the deployment of terrestrial, marine and airborne robots in real SAR and disaster relief situations. It concludes with a brief discussion. Findings – This shows that SAR and disaster relief robots are the topic of an extensive development effort, and many have performed well in simulated disaster scenarios. Terrestrial, marine and airborne robots have been used in many real disaster relief situations since 2001, and the use of unmanned aerial vehicles has proliferated due to recent technological developments. Robots now play an important role in supporting SAR teams, and this will certainly increase as the technologies are developed further. Originality/value – In an era characterized by extreme weather events and continuing military conflicts, robots play an increasingly important role in supporting human disaster response teams. This article provides details of developments, trials and real-world deployments of such robots.

Exposure to Hurricane Sandy, neighborhood collective efficacy, and post-traumatic stress symptoms in older adults

ABSTRACTObjectives: Older adults exposed to natural disasters are at risk for negative psychological outcomes such as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Neighborhood social capital can act as a resource that supports individual-level coping with stressors. This study explores the ability of perceived neighborhood collective efficacy, a form of social capital, to moderate the association between exposure to Hurricane Sandy and PTSD symptoms in older adults.Method: Data from 2205 older individuals aged 54–80 residing in New Jersey who self-reported exposure to Hurricane Sandy in October of 2012 were identified and extracted from the ORANJ BOWL™ research panel. Participants completed baseline assessments of demographic and individual-level characteristics in 2006–2008 and follow-up assessments about storm exposure, perceived neighborhood collective efficacy (social cohesion and social control), and PTSD symptoms 8–33 months following the storm. Zero-inflated Poisson regression models were tested to examine the association between exposure, neighborhood collective efficacy, and PTSD symptoms.Results: After accounting for known demographic and individual-level covariates, greater storm exposure was linked to higher levels of PTSD symptoms. Social cohesion, but not social control, was linked to lower reports of PTSD symptoms and moderated the association between exposure and PTSD. The impact of storm exposure on PTSD symptoms was less for individuals reporting higher levels of social cohesion.Conclusion: Mental health service providers and disaster preparedness and response teams should consider the larger social network of individuals served. Building social connections in older adults' neighborhoods that promote cohesion can reduce the negative psychological impact of a disaster.