Disaster Myths Research Articles

What Really Happened in New Orleans? Estimating the Threat of Violence During the Hurricane Katrina Disaster*

Although research indicates that initial media reports greatly exaggerated the severity of violent crime in post‐Katrina New Orleans, it is not yet clear whether violence in general was a problem for storm victims. In this study, data from a unique survey of storm victims are used to estimate the overall threat of violence faced by those who were hardest hit by the storm and who lived through the disaster in New Orleans. The findings suggest that, while the threat of violent victimization was very real for some respondents, it did not dominate the experience of these storm victims. These findings are discussed in terms of their implications for the social construction of law and order, the persistence of disaster myths, negative stereotyping of the urban poor, and crime control issues in the context of disaster management and planning.

Conventional Beliefs and Counterintuitive Realities

Enrico L. Quarantelli Conventional Beliefs and Counterintuitive Realities THIS PAPER DISCUSSES MAJOR MYTHS AND WIDELY HELD INCORRECT beliefs about individual and group behaviors in disaster contexts. Why can we categorize such views as invalid? Because now there has been m ore than half a century o f systematic social science studies (and an earlier half century of less well known scattered works) that have estab­ lished the actual param eters of the behavior of individuals and groups in natural and technological disaster situations (for recent summaries of the extensive research literature, see Lindell, Peny, and Prater, 2006; N ational Research Council, 2006; and Rodriguez, Q uarantelli, and Dynes, 2006). All is not known, and serious gaps rem ain in knowledge about im portant topics, but we are at this tim e far beyond just educated guesses on m any dim ensions of the relevant behaviors. Our focus is on six different behavioral aspects ofdisasters,prim ar­ ily occurring around the im pact tim e period of such crises. Stated in just a few words, we look at panic flight and at antisocial looting behav­ ior, supposed passivity in emergencies, role conflict and abandonment, severe m ental health consequences, and the locus of w hatever prob­ lems surface. We present w hat is often assumed, believed, or stated on these m atters—at least in popular discourse and to a varying extent in policy, planning, and operational circles—as over against w hat study and research has found. The concept of “m yths” was coined in the early 1950s by research­ ers who were studying the natural and technological “disasters” that social research Vol 75 : No 3 : Fall 2008 873 were taking place in Am erican society at that time. These research­ ers were never under any illusion th at these were the only kinds of collective crises th at societies could suffer. This idea was reinforced in the early 1960s w hen there were m any urban and university riots that “disaster” researchers studied even as they recognized they were along some lines qualitatively different from the earlier natural and technological disasters looked at in the field. To some researchers these became known as “conflict crises.” In the decades that followed, addi­ tional notions about mega-disasters/catastrophes, as well as even newer kinds of crises, also qualitatively different, crept into the literature. W ithout going into the uneven historical evolution of the think­ ing about different kinds or types, we need here to identify distinc­ tive aspects of the four kinds of collective crises ju st noted. This is because the idea of the m yths is not equally applicable across the board. Particularly im portant is th at the idea makes sense for disasters but needs qualification for catastrophes. A few researchers have argued for decades that there are disasters and there are catastrophes. This is not simply substituting or replacing one word w ith another to try to m aintain the idea of disaster myths, as has been incorrectly implied (Handmer, 2007, for example). Rather, it involves an attem pt to differentiate m ajor differences between one kind of social crisis and another as the result of the im pact of a destruc­ tive natural or technological agent (see Quarantelli, 2005a). The charac­ teristics of a catastrophe in ideal-type term s are the following. In a space-time framework, a catastrophe occurs when 1) w ithin a relatively short time period, 2) a large but not necessarily fully contiguous area with multiple land uses and diverse communities, is 3) perceived as being subjected to veiy m ajor threats to life and property, thus 4) requir­ ing immediate responses to start restoring a routine social order. This kind of social occasion results in: ►m ost eveiyday com m unity functions and social institutions being sharply and concurrently interrupted (in contrast to this not happening in a disaster); 874 social research ►m any organizations, including those that are emergency oriented, either cease operating or do so in a m arkedly reduced m anner (in contrast to a disaster w here few organizations in a com m unity dete­ riorate to such a degree); ►m any local com m...

Disaster mythology: looting in New Orleans

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to examine the many reports of looting during the response operation in New Orleans following Hurricane Katrina in 2005 and assess these reports against literature which suggests that looting during natural disasters is a myth.Design/methodology/approachMedia reports of looting from the days following Hurricane Katrina's landfall in New Orleans are compared with previously published evidence of disaster mythology. Questions are raised regarding the legitimacy of these reports and the role of such reports is assessed along with the role that media agencies play in disaster planning and response.FindingsMedia reports of looting in New Orleans appear to be mainly repeated second‐hand accounts. It is likely that there was in fact no looting in the traditional sense. The paper suggests what really happened in terms of theft and poses potential reasons as to the cause thereof. A clear definition of looting is suggested for emergency managers to use in order to separate acts of survival from pure criminal acts.Originality/valueThe paper highlights the dangers for emergency managers in believing common disaster myths. It is a timely reminder of the existence disaster mythology against a recent disaster in a developed country.

The wrath of the gods: appraising the meaning of disaster

Beginning with the Flood story from ancient Mesopotamia, which is related to similar Biblical and Greek accounts, we focus on the genre of disaster myths, in which man is overcome by divine retribution for his misdeeds. Psychologically speaking, myth has to be considered as part of our human search for meaning. Man looks for the causes of effects; he also expects the effects of causes to be proportionate, which may be the basis of the notion of justice. We review the concept of appraisal as a necessary prelude to emotion: human beings `size up' the situation to see what caused it and whether it was deserved or not before they react. In the case of myth, this psychological mechanism led ancient man to supernatural explanations for natural disasters, namely divine retribution. This is not the case in all cultures; in animistic ones, the cause of misfortune may be sought in hostile outside agency, such as witchcraft. This just goes to show the importance of appraisal biases in emotion, which typically rest on a cultural and religious foundation. The psychological perspective can thus contribute to the understanding of myth at work in human thinking, as part of an interdisciplinary effort involving anthropology and the study of religion.

KATRINA AND ANARCHY: A CONTENT ANALYSIS OF A NEW DISASTER MYTH

Hurricane Katrina ranks among the worst natural catastrophes in United States history. In addition to the physical damage to the city and the levees, Katrina will also be remembered for the posthurricane suffering, the lack of coordinated government response, and memorable reporting in the media. The media, here characterized as newspaper coverage, utilized anarchy to frame the reported postdisaster lack of government presence, the perceived threat of, and actual violence and looting in the immediate wake of the catastrophe. Ethnographic content analysis of 59 newspaper articles yielded a typology of the three different connotations of anarchy. Finally, a comparison is offered between the media's use of anarchy in the post-Katrina coverage and the sociopolitical theory of anarchy. The article concludes that although the media mischaracterized the postdisaster reality by using an anarchy frame, their coverage is consistent with the disaster mythology literature, while conflating typical disaster myths within the anarchy frame.

Metaphors Matter: Disaster Myths, Media Frames, and Their Consequences in Hurricane Katrina

It has long been understood by disaster researchers that both the general public and organizational actors tend to believe in various disaster myths. Notions that disasters are accompanied by looting, social disorganization, and deviant behavior are examples of such myths. Research shows that the mass media play a significant role in promulgating erroneous beliefs about disaster behavior. Following Hurricane Katrina, the response of disaster victims was framed by the media in ways that greatly exaggerated the incidence and severity of looting and lawlessness. Media reports initially employed a “civil unrest” frame and later characterized victim behavior as equivalent to urban warfare. The media emphasis on lawlessness and the need for strict social control both reflects and reinforces political discourse calling for a greater role for the military in disaster management. Such policy positions are indicators of the strength of militarism as an ideology in the United States.

Disaster Myths and Hurricane Katrina 2005: Can Public Officals and the Media Learn to Provide Reponsible Crisis Communication during Disasters?

Disaster Myths and Hurricane Katrina 2005: Can Public Officals and the Media Learn to Provide Reponsible Crisis Communication during Disasters?

Dispelling disaster myths about dead bodies and disease: the role of scientific evidence and the media

For decades, after nearly every natural disaster, fear of disease has encouraged communities, local authorities, and governments to rapidly dispose of the bodies of the victims without first identifying them. In May 2004 this journal published the first-ever review article to comprehensively assess the scientific evidence on the infectious disease risks of dead bodies following natural disasters, along with an editorial commenting on the persistence of myths concerning the dangers allegedly posed by dead bodies. This paper assesses the impact that the review article and the editorial have had on the way that health risks from dead bodies have been reported by the media over the following year, especially focusing on the South Asian tsunami disaster of December 2004. While some media outlets have reported erroneous information, hundreds of other news stories have accurately reported that dead bodies pose no public health risk, and have explained the priority for properly identifying the deceased. Nevertheless, publication of scientific evidence alone is insufficient to bring about public health action. International agencies need to continue their work on producing standards, guidelines, and practical guidance on managing dead bodies. There needs to be a community-centered approach to informing communities about the management of the dead following disasters and the rights of individuals to be treated respectfully after death. Nongovernmental organizations should be encouraged to provide expertise and technical support in identifying and burying large numbers of dead. There also needs to be ongoing assessment of the technical processes involved in the recovery, identification, and disposal of dead bodies, as well as the effectiveness of disaster preparedness plans and communication with the affected population.

Finding Order in Disorder: Continuities in the 9–11 Response

The events of September 11th in the United States prompted speculation about the capacity of modern societies to deal with such collective traumas. Here, comparisons are made to past situations, primarily Hamburg after intensive bombing in 1943. Such comparisons indicate immediate and persistent efforts to re-establish the continuity of social life. Such continuity is in contrast to popular images of individual and collective disorganization as well as the presumption that urban areas are especially fragile. After 9/11, effective efforts were frequently attributed to American exceptionalism. While the social sciences have a number of concepts to deal with social disorganization, there are fewer to characterize stability and adaptability. Illustrations of the importance of social capital and organizational resilience in the New York case are offered. By contrast, post 9/11 discussions have often been dominated by the recycling of disaster myths, especially the belief in widespread panic, the necessity of command and control and the assumption that “people “ are the primary problem. Many of those ideas have since become embedded in the implementation of “homeland security”.

Stop propagating disaster myths

The international response to the recent tragic earthquakes in Turkey, Greece and Taiwan reinforces the need to reassess the myths and realities surrounding disasters, and to find ways to stop these destructive tales. Most of those myths cover the fear of epidemics and the place of external assistance in the rescue effort. It is urged that the media and donor community should work together to channelise the funds and use them effectively, particularly for planning and making sure that help reaches in the hour of need and not after the emergency has lapsed.

Stop propagating disaster myths

The international response to the recent tragic earthquakes in Turkey, Greece and Taiwan reinforces the need to reassess the myths and realities surrounding disasters, and to find ways to stop these destructive tales. Most of those myths cover the fear of epidemics and the place of external assistance in the rescue effort. It is urged that the media and donor community should work together to channelise the funds and use them effectively, particularly for planning and making sure that help reaches in the hour of need and not after the emergency has lapsed.

Stop propagating disaster myths

Stop propagating disaster myths

Modern Disasters as Outrage and Betrayal

The concept of disaster in the modern world has been socially constructed from traditional notions relating to catastrophic events. Disasters in modern societies contain strong elements of a release of repressed existential anxiety, triggered by a perceived betrayal of trust by contemporary institutions. It is speculated that the well-known “disaster myths “ that figure in media and other accounts of disastrous events are elements of a related characterization of disasters as a loss of control of social order.

Local and National Media Coverage of Disaster: A Content Analysis of the Print Media's Treatment of Disaster Myths

Based on newspaper coverage for four disasters-two within the U.S.A., one in Algeria, and one in Italy–Goltz (1984) concluded that generally the media do not present images of maladaptive behavior or disaster myths. This article reexamines Goltz's foldings, presents additional relevant data from media coverage of Hurricane Alicia and dissects several important methodological issues. Our conclusion is a counterpoint observation that the mass communication system does contain mythical elements.

Are the News Media Responsible for the Disaster Myths? A Content Analysis of Emergency Response Imagery

Disaster research scholars and emergency planners have often contended that the news media play a major role in creating and perpetuating various myths of natural disaster response. These myths include widespread panic flight, psychological dependency and vicious competition for necessities on the part of victims and physical convergence for the purpose of looting by non-victims. The evidence which ties the news media to these myths of community breakdown is largely indirect. Survey data reveal a generalized belief among members of the public that the above enumerated behaviors are typical reactions of people faced with a sudden crisis. These data also indicate that the news media are the principal source of information about disasters for most people. Lacking are detailed analyses which document the extent to which the myths of community breakdown actually appear in news coverage of natural disaster events. The present study, which focuses on the reporting of four earthquake events by two Southern California newspapers, attempts to address this issue. The results, though preliminary, suggest that some caution is warranted in making the generalization that natural disaster coverage disproportionately conveys a breakdown imagery of communities facing a major natural catastrophe.

The Culture Apocalypse: Hegemony and the Frontier at the End of the World

The turn of the millennium saw a marked increase in apocalypse-themed mass media, especially in television and film, of which the United States is the largest producer. The role of the apocalypse has been to produce hegemony for the ruling establishment that purported itself as being able to prevent or somehow save potential victims. Historically the church possessed this authority, but in contemporary society that role has been passed to governments and to scientific and technological institutions. In contemporary America, apocalypse is part of a spectrum of religious beliefs ingrained into the American Way of life. Commercial America has resurrected the apocalypse myth as spectacle commodity. Apocalyptic media today reflect current values of the American hegemon in globalization, and are portrayed as particularly real in order to be effective. The increased interest in disaster myths specifically reflects Beck’s (1992) concept of a world risk society. Deconstructing the films Independence Day and The Day After Tomorrow reveals hegemonic devices that uphold the American way in the advent of globalization through the use of heteronormative values, scientific savior-adversary binaries, and symbolic rebirth through the recreation of frontier space.