Disaster In Japan Research Articles

Investigation of the Receiving United States National Disaster Medical System (NDMS) Disaster Medical Assistant Team (DMAT) in Japan: Development of Standard Operation Procedures for Receiving International Medical Teams

Background/Introduction:Japan DMAT and US DMAT have been collaborating in the past to prepare for expected and unexpected disasters in Japan. Japan is predicting overwhelming disasters on Japanese soil soon, which needs efficient and optimum use of resources in medical assistance, including additional support from overseas, particularly from the US. The Japanese government established a large-scale Earthquake/Tsunami Disaster Emergency Response protocol in 2020. However, this protocol does not include any standard operation procedure (SOP) to receive an international medical team.Objectives:Establishing the SOP of receiving medical assistance from US-DMAT based on the WHO International Emergency Team (EMT) initiative.Method/Description:Collaborated with the Office of the Assistant Secretary for Preparedness and Response (ASPR) of the United States Health and Human Services, tabletop exercises assuming that a large-scale earthquake occurred during hosting the 2025 Osaka Expo was conducted online meeting system.Results/Outcomes:Provisional SOP was formed by the Japan research team and ASPR representatives. Even though Japan had several disaster medical assistance collaborations with US DMAT and is well-familiarized with the Classification and Minimum Standards for Emergency Medical Teams, many issues need to be prepared to accept US DMAT.Conclusion:Numerous procedures need to be conducted to receive US DMAT assistance during a large-scale earthquake in Japan. With this SOP, receiving US medical team assistance will be conducted promptly, eventually saving many lives. This SOP can be modified for other international teams’ acceptance in Japan. It could reference other countries seeking to have SOPs for receiving international medical team assistance in the near future.

Introduction of Japan Disaster Medical Assistant Team as a National Emergency Medical Team

Background/Introduction:Japan is a country with many disasters. Japan’s disaster medical system has improved significantly over the past 30 years by gaining experience in various disasters. Japan is implementing one of the unique disaster medical teams raised from experience and needs.Objectives:Introducing the Japan Disaster Medical Assistance Team (DMAT) system and discussing how the domestic disaster medical team should be.Method/Description:Referring to the actual response to domestic disasters and the development of disaster medical teams in Japan.Results/Outcomes:The National Emergency Medical Teams (National-EMT), Japan DMAT, was established in 2005. Currently, DMAT is 1,754 teams and over 15,862 members were registered. The team usually consists of five to six personnel, including two doctors, two nurses, and two logisticians. Each team carries standardized equipment. Japan DMAT will not set up a field hospital in the disaster area. Japan DMAT will bring a team to the Disaster Base Hospitals (DBHs) and start supporting the affected hospital operation first. Then, if there are other affected patients within DBH’s medical jurisdiction, then the team will mobile and support each hospital and clinic for further medical assistance.Conclusion:Having National-EMT in your own country is necessary for disaster-prone countries. Still, it is also required to consider what type of EMT needs to be established, referring already existing emergency medical system of your country.

Similarities between Disaster Food and Space Food.

Disaster and space environments are similar in that they are closed environment, with limited lifelines. Here, we examined the similarity between disaster food and space food, to explore interactive problem-solving of food support for disaster and space environments. The Japan Disaster Food Certification Standards (Japan Disaster Food Society) and the Japanese Space Food Certification Standards (Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency) requirements and certified products, which were posted on the websites as of June 16, 2021, were compared. Certified products were classified into "staple foods," "main and/or side dishes," "milk and dairy products," "fruits," "confectionery and favorite beverages," "condiments," "dietary supplements," and "sets." Certification standards involved six items for Japan Disaster Food and eight items for Japanese Space Food. Most standards were similar. Concretely, both standards demanded room temperature storage, tough packaging and hygiene management in facilities. Both emphasized habitual food and easy eating. However, the best-by date was ≥6 mo for Japan Disaster Food, but ≥1.5 y for Japanese Space Food. In addition, Japanese Space Food required noted nutritious, food hygienic, eatable in space, cookable by specific equipment, endurable pressure by launch, and domestically produced food. There were 171 and 47 products of Japan Disaster Food and Japanese Space Food, respectively. Staple foods (pregelatinized rice, etc.) and main and/or side dishes were commonest among Japan Disaster Foods and Japanese Space Foods, respectively. It is possible to utilize of Space Food as Disaster Food, but there are some issues that must be cleared before "utilization of Disaster Food as Space Food."

Hidden pressurized fluids prior to the 2014 phreatic eruption at Mt Ontake

A large fraction of volcanic eruptions does not expel magma at the surface. Such an eruption occurred at Mt Ontake in 2014, claiming the life of at least 58 hikers in what became the worst volcanic disaster in Japan in almost a century. Tens of scientific studies attempted to identify a precursor and to unravel the processes at work but overall remain inconclusive. By taking advantage of continuous seismic recordings, we uncover an intriguing sequence of correlated seismic velocity and volumetric strain changes starting 5 months before the eruption; a period previously considered as completely quiescent. We use various novel approaches such as covariance matrix eigenvalues distribution, cutting-edge deep-learning models, and ascribe such velocity pattern as reflecting critically stressed conditions in the upper portions of the volcano. These, in turn, later triggered detectable deformation and earthquakes. Our results shed light onto previously undetected pressurized fluids using stations located above the volcano-hydrothermal system and hold great potential for monitoring.

Impact of national-scale changes in forest cover on floods and rainfall-induced sediment-related disasters in Japan

ABSTRACT Changes in forest cover influence floods and sediment-related disasters. In Japan, forest cover has changed substantially at the national scale, and floods and rainfall-induced sediment-related disasters have subsequently decreased. In this study, we determined the quantitative impact of national-scale changes in forest cover on floods and rainfall-induced sediment-related disasters. The growing stock of forests and the flooded area were obtained from the Forestry Agency and the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism, and were used as indices to examine the relationship between forest cover and floods and rainfall-induced sediment-related disasters. The flooded area decreased exponentially until the growing stock of forests reached 3.13 billion m3 (124.5 m3/ha), but was not reduced more as the growing stock further increased. Our findings agree with a previous study that investigated the growing stock of forest needed to prevent landslides. The two indices used in this study were suitable because they have corresponded with forest cover, floods, and rainfall-induced sediment-related disasters since the 1960s. The results of this study can be a guide to determining the volume of logging without increasing floods or sediment-related disasters.

The 2018 Japan Floods increased prescriptions of anti-dementia drugs among disaster victims: a retrospective cohort study based on a national health insurance database

BACKGROUND AND AIM: The occurrence of weather-related disasters is increasing with the progression of global climate change. Natural disasters increase the risk of impaired cognitive function of elderly victims. It is not clear what effects such natural disasters have on the prescriptions of drug treatment for dementia. Thus, we evaluated the effect of the 2018 Japan Floods, the second-largest water-related disaster in Japan, on the prescriptions of anti-dementia drugs (ADD) for elderly people. Methods: From the National Database of Health Insurance Claims, we extracted prescription data in Hiroshima, Okayama and Ehime prefectures for one year before and after the disaster. From the database, 1,710,119 people aged 65 years or over were selected as the study participants. Sex- and age-adjusted odds ratios (ORs) of victims for new ADD prescriptions were calculated using logistic regression models. A difference-in-difference analysis was conducted to take into account the trends for the ORs before the disaster. Furthermore, among continuous ADD users, the effects of disaster on the increasing trend for ADD prescriptions (daily dose or number of drug types) was also evaluated. Results: Of 1,710,119 people enrolled, 15,994 (0.9%) were recorded as a disaster-victims, and 112,289 (6.6%) were prescribed ADD. Among original non-users, victims were more likely to start using ADD after the disaster than non-victims [adjusted OR=1.33 (95% CI:1.16–1.52)]. Among continuous users, an increasing trend for ADD prescriptions was more often observed for victims than non-victims [1.61 (1.13–2.31)]. These associations were maintained even after considering the pre-disaster trend of ADD use. Conclusions: The natural disaster results in an increased number of users of anti-dementia medications. Special attention to such neurological shifts and welfare support is needed for elderly victims of a large-scale natural disaster.

Utilization of Mental Health Support Systems in the Aftermath of Disasters in Japan: Statistical Data of the Miyagi Disaster Mental Health Care Center.

Large-scale natural disasters have a significant effect on residents’ mental health. The Miyagi Disaster Mental Health Care Center (DMHCC) was established as a long-term mental health care center in response to the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake and Tsunami (GEJE). Although six DMHCCs have been established in Japan, their exact role and functioning are still unclear. This study aimed to explore which population used the center in each recovery phase. Logistic regression was performed to identify the residents’ characteristics according to the consultation pathways using the data collected by the Miyagi DMHCC. These data included personal information of the residents who were supported by the center from 2013 to 2018. The working-age unemployed men sought help by themselves, and the isolated older females were supported by home visits through the health survey. Long-term mental health care centers should observe community recovery and provide appropriate support. The implications of this result and future research directions are discussed.

Recent and Historical Background and Current Challenges for Sediment Disaster Measures against Climate Change in Japan

Japan is a country with one of the highest incidences of sediment disasters, which will become more severe and more frequent as a result of climate change. This paper reviews the recent occurrence of sediment disasters caused by heavy rainfall affected by climate change in recent years, challenges in adaptation measures, and recent policies targeting such sediment disasters in Japan. The Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism (MLIT) has been conducting non-structural and structural measures based on legislation. Recently, climate change has resulted in more severe and frequent disasters along with damage caused by sediment movement phenomena that are not covered by the present system for warning and evacuation. Efforts to establish assessment methods concerning the risk of these phenomena are shown as examples of current challenges of climate change.

Unsustainable development, disasters and displacement: Revisiting the governance challenge

The increasing frequency and magnitude of disasters – many of which are considered to reflect intensifying climate change – are leading to more collisions between environmental hazards and unsustainable and/or irresponsible development practices that trigger displacement. Displacement in the context of disasters and climate change has been attracting much attention in recent years, while the complexities of development-induced displacement are well-documented in the forced migration field. Yet, the intersection between unsustainable development, disasters and displacement remains inadequately examined. The context that enables the nexus between unsustainable development and disasters to form, and the implications it carries for addressing displacement raises complex governance challenges.This article aims to promote greater reflections on such context and some of these challenges by examining the case of 2021 Atami mudslide disaster in Japan, where the collapse of inappropriately constructed landfill located on top of the affected area has been identified as a major factor. The analysis considers the underlying circumstances within which this disaster occurred by examining relevant legacies from Japan's post-war developmentalist era. It also reviews relevant policy and regulatory frameworks pertaining to territorial development and disaster risk reduction and management, revealing how fragmentation between these policy domains impact on the ability to address displacement in multi-hazard situations. The conclusion highlights the policy implications that this case raises about the feasibility of existing administrative and regulatory set-ups to supervise and enforce corrective measures when it comes to unsustainable and/or irresponsible development practices and projects that magnify existing risks of disasters and displacement.

Establishing best practice for the implementation of evacuation centres for vulnerable populations: A comparative analysis of the Australian and Japanese experience

BackgroundDisaster evacuation centres are often the first place for disaster-affected people to stay after a disaster as a form of temporary housing. Recent major disasters in Australia and Japan have raised issues regarding access to evacuation centres by vulnerable populations. ObjectivesThis paper reports a comparative analysis of the Australian and Japanese experience. This study aimed to identify the challenges for stakeholders in disaster health emergency management, in relation to establishing and managing evacuation centres for vulnerable populations, as well as possible solutions to address these challenges. MethodsSemi-structured interviews were conducted with 11 participants from both countries. Interview data were analysed thematically using the NVivo software. ResultsSix themes were extracted: Low awareness of the need to protect vulnerable people, ensuring adequate staffing with suitable emergency workers, responding to cultural considerations, increasing awareness of the needs of vulnerable people in communities, ensuring effective coordination within centres, and improving preparedness for cultural diversity. ConclusionsBoth countries experienced similar challenges, such as a shortage of relief staff and difficulty establishing effective coordination roles. Coordination and preparedness required a clear delineation of roles and responsibilities as well as communication between local governments and stakeholders in communities during the non-disaster period.

Japan’s Disaster Memorial Museums and framing 3.11: Othering the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster in cultural memory

ABSTRACT With the proliferation of several dozen new exhibits and museums dedicated to this specific disaster, the 3.11 Great East Japan Earthquake, tsunami, and nuclear disaster, can be considered a turning point in the preservation of disaster memory in Japan. Although there is limited research on disaster museums, they play a significant role in shaping cultural memory of 3.11, as they are regarded as reliable, objective institutions of memory. Through analysis of 17 government-established 3.11 museums, this research explores the following questions: How do public disaster museums frame their representations of 3.11, and what official narrative is created within the cultural memory of the triple disaster in Japan? Drawing from analysis of the museums’ mission statements and exhibitions, and interviews with curators and museum staff, we argue that most disaster museums support narratives of overcoming hardships to contribute to a better future, showing continuity with narratives typical of other memorial museums such as WWII, or pre-3.11 disaster museums. In contrast to the commemoration of war and its influence on cultural memory, disaster museums have received relatively little scholarly attention. Yet, these forward-looking messages, combined with tendencies of museums to focus on local disaster experiences and emphasize disaster risk reduction with an artificial separation between man-made disasters vs. natural hazards, contributes to an othering of the Fukushima nuclear disaster in cultural memory, as an outlier in Japan’s long history of disasters. Without full representation of the compound disaster, understanding of 3.11 and the effective transmission of the intended lessons is severely limited.

Risk Perceptions and Amplification Effects over Time: Evaluating Fukushima Longitudinal Surveys

Despite the vast body of literature addressing public risk perceptions of technological disasters such as nuclear accidents, longitudinal studies comparing pre- and post-disaster attitudes are scarce. This study examines (a) how perception factors such as concern, risk, political saliency, trust, and attitudes toward energy policies related to nuclear power changed over time and among different populations, and (b) if social amplification and ripple effects were present after the 2011 Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Disaster in Japan. The article compares 2010 survey data collected before the nuclear accident with data collected in 2013 and 2016. The analysis shows a clear trend regarding concern over nuclear power. Levels of concern and political saliency increased in the aftermath of the nuclear disaster but declined in 2016. These findings indicate amplification effects between the pre-disaster survey in 2010 and the first follow-up survey in 2013. However, the 2016 data indicate the Fukushima accident only had a significant short-term impact on public risk perceptions. The data also indicate high levels of uncertainty regarding trust and future energy policies. The high levels of uncertainty present an opportunity for nuclear power supporters and opponents alike to shape Japan’s future energy policy through well-crafted communication and outreach programs.

The 2018 Japan Floods Increased Prescriptions of Antidementia Drugs Among Disaster Victims.

Natural disasters can impair the cognitive function of older victims. However, it is unknown whether such natural disasters affect drug treatment for dementia. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of the 2018 Japan Floods, the second largest water-related disaster in Japan, on the prescriptions of antidementia drugs (ADD) for older people (≥65years of age). Retrospective cohort study. Prescription data in Hiroshima, Okayama, and Ehime prefectures for 1year before and after the disaster were extracted from the National Database of Health Insurance Claims. From the database, we selected 1,710,119 people age 65years or over as the study participants. In logistic regression models, sex- and age-adjusted odds ratios (ORs) of victims for new ADD prescriptions were calculated. Trends for the ORs before and after the disaster were evaluated using difference-in-difference models. Whether or not there was an increase in the trend for ADD prescriptions (daily dose or number of drug types) was also evaluated among continuous ADD users. Among 1,710,119 participants, 15,994 (0.9%) were recorded as a disaster-victims, and 112,289 (6.6%) were prescribed ADD. Among original nonusers, after the disaster, victims were more likely to start using ADD than nonvictims who had not been affected [adjusted OR= 1.33 (95% CI 1.16-1.52)]. Among continuous users, an increasing trend for ADD prescriptions was more often observed for victims than nonvictims [1.61 (1.13-2.31)]. This effect was robust even after the predisaster trend of ADD use was taken into consideration. The disaster increased the number of users of antidementia medications. The findings suggest the need for evidence-based recommendations to address cognitive impairment among disaster victims, which is lacking in current clinical and disaster guidelines worldwide.

On drawing graphic industrial disasters: an interview with Sean Michael Wilson

ABSTRACT Of late there have been a plethora of graphic narratives which deal with industrial disasters—for instance, Adam Stone’s The Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill (2010), Nick Hayes’s Rime of the Modern Mariner (2011), Pablo Fajardo and Sophie Tardy Jouber’s Crude: A Memoir (2021), Helen Bate’s The Lost Child of Chernobyl: A Graphic Novel (2021) among others. These graphic narratives while remembering the industrial disasters also invoke issues related to social accountability, stir the erased chapters of ecological violence, and more importantly, tease out the tensions between the State records/archives and the testimonies/ memories of the affected community. In so doing, these graphic narratives, at once function as memorials that document, commemorate and globalize the sufferings of the victims. Published in 2021 and drawn in Manga style, The Minamata Story: An Eco Tragedy is one such graphic narrative that recounts the Minamata industrial disaster in Japan. Minamata industrial disaster (1956) was caused by the continual release of methylmercury to waterbodies from the factories owned by Chisso Corporation. In this context, Sean Michael Wilson, the author of The Minamata Story: An Eco Tragedy, in an email interview shares his views on graphic narratives on industrial disasters, Manga, and implications and social stigma associated with the Minamata disease.

The potential of disaster digital archives in disaster education: The case of the Japan disasters digital archive (JDA) and its geo-location functions

Using the Japan Disasters Digital Archive (JDA) as an example, the present study examines how geo-location functions in disaster digital archives may contribute to disaster risk awareness. It focuses on the sites affected by or representing lessons learned from the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake (GEJE), such as the tsunami inundated coastal areas or museums. The study tests the thesis that geo-located data in digital archives can enhance disaster risk awareness by allowing its users to discover novel location-specific information. The Covid-19 pandemic drastically influenced the research design and the results. The research methods had to be changed from group-based field trips and in-person interviews to virtual research methods that participants could follow on their own. Although there is room for improvements in the JDA design and function, the research results suggest that options for visitors to retrieve information through digital archives on their own while visiting sites of their interest can contribute to their understanding of the history of these specific places and local risks. Promoting self-guided tours by giving access to disaster digital archives with a geolocation-function could also be used as a cost saving option for museums and visitors alike to explore disaster-affected areas, especially in times of a pandemic when visitors are discouraged from joining crowded tours. As a whole, this research aims to not only improve (disaster) digital archives but also to contribute to disaster education in general and offer a widened learning experience for visitors of disaster affected areas in particular.

Increased prescriptions for irritable bowel syndrome after the 2018 Japan Floods: a longitudinal analysis based on the Japanese National Database of Health Insurance Claims and Specific Health Checkups

BackgroundThe frequency and intensity of natural disasters are increasing worldwide, which makes our understanding of disaster-related diseases more important than ever. Natural disasters cause mental stress and infectious diarrhea, but the causal relationship between disasters and a potential consequence of these conditions, irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), is unreported. The 2018 Japan Floods, which took place in July 2018 was one of the largest water disasters in Japan’s recorded history. We investigate the change of drug prescriptions for IBS between disaster-suffers and non-sufferers throughout the disaster period to examine the relationship.MethodsThis is a retrospective cohort study based on the Japanese National Database of Health Insurance Claims and Specific Health Checkups in flood-stricken areas between July 2017 and June 2019. We included subjects older than 15 years of age who had visited a medical institution or been hospitalized in the hardest-hit areas of the disaster. Ramosetron, polycarbophil calcium, and mepenzolate bromide (IBS drugs) approved solely for the treatment of IBS in Japan were analyzed. The monthly rate of prescriptions for IBS drugs was compared between municipality-certified disaster victims and non-victims using a controlled interrupted time series analysis. For those who were not prescribed IBS drugs before the disaster (non-users), the occurrence of an IBS drug prescription after the disaster was evaluated using a multivariable logistic regression analysis adjusted for gender and age.ResultsOf 5,287,888 people enrolled, 32,499 (0.61%) were certified victims. The prescription rate for IBS drugs among victims increased significantly by 128% immediately after the disaster, while it was stable among non-victims. The trend for the post-disaster prescription rate among victims moved upward significantly when compared to non-victims (0.01% per month; 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.004–0.015; P = 0.001). Among non-users, the occurrence of an IBS drug prescription for victims was 0.71% and was significantly higher than non-victims (0.35%, adjusted odds ratio 2.05; 95% CI 1.81–2.32).ConclusionsThe 2018 Japan Floods increased the rate of prescriptions for IBS drugs, suggesting that the disaster caused or worsened IBS among victims.

Development and testing of a nuclear regulator safety culture perception survey

The International Atomic Energy Agency’s (IAEA) inquiry into the Fukushima nuclear disaster in Japan in 2012 identified the culture of the regulator as a contributing factor. The recognition of the importance of regulator safety culture has resulted in the development of international guidelines on assessment by the IAEA and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). These guidelines encourage nuclear regulators to conduct multi-method safety culture self-assessments, which include a safety culture perception survey. Currently, there is no publicly available regulator safety culture perception survey that has been psychometrically tested. The current paper describes the initial testing of a perception survey developed by an IAEA working group. A literature review developed an initial 11-dimension framework. Subject matter experts developed 144 survey items to assess these dimensions. The 144 items were evaluated by safety culture experts and reduced to 71 items. A sample of 114 nuclear regulators completed this survey. The results of statistical analysis supported a five-factor model retaining 34 survey items.

Impact of the 2018 Japan Floods on benzodiazepine use: a longitudinal analysis based on the National Database of Health Insurance Claims.

Natural disaster has an impact on mental health. The 2018 Japan Floods, which took place in July 2018 were one of the largest water disasters in Japan's recorded history. We aimed to evaluate the change in the number of benzodiazepine prescriptions by physicians before and after the disaster. A retrospective cohort study based on the National Database of Health Insurance Claims was conducted in the flood-stricken areas between July 2017 and June 2019. The subjects were divided between victims and non-victims according to certification by local governments. Members of both groups were then categorized into three groups based on their pre-flood use of benzodiazepines: non-user, occasional user, and continuous user. Difference-in-differences (DID) analysis with a logistic regression model was conducted to estimate the effect of the disaster among victims by comparing the occurrence of benzodiazepine prescriptions before and after the disaster. Of 5,000,129 people enrolled, 31,235 were victims. Among all participants, the mean prescription rate for benzodiazepines in victims before the disaster (11.3%) increased to 11.8% after the disaster, while that in non-victims (8.3%) decreased to 7.9%. The DID analysis revealed that benzodiazepine prescription among victims significantly increased immediately after the disaster (adjusted ratio of odds ratios (ROR) 1.07: 95% confidence interval 1.05-1.11), and the effect of the disaster persisted even 1year after the disaster (adjusted ROR 1.2: 95% confidence interval 1.16-1.24). The flood increased the number of benzodiazepines prescriptions among victims, and the effect persisted for at least 1year.

Impact of the 2018 Japan Floods on prescriptions for migraine: A longitudinal analysis using the National Database of Health Insurance Claims.

To determine the impact of the 2018Japan Floods, one of the largest water disasters in Japan, on the number of prescriptions for triptans and ergotamine (acute treatment). Natural disasters frequently occur worldwide and may cause psychological stress-related diseases. Acute migraine attacks can be triggered by psychological stress. Disaster victims are likely to experience tremendous psychological stress; however, the relationship between natural disasters and migraine attacks is not well investigated. A retrospective longitudinal cohort study was conducted using the National Database of Health Insurance Claims in the hardest-hit areas of the disaster 1year before and after the disaster. We included people between the ages of 15 and 64 years. Those who had a victim code that was certificated by a local government were assigned to the victim group, and others to the nonvictim group. For those who were not prescribed acute treatment before the disaster (i.e., group without previous acute treatment), the cumulative incidence of new prescriptions for acute treatment at 12months of follow-up was calculated and compared between victims and nonvictims with survival analysis. Of 3,475,515 people aged 15 to 64years enrolled in the study, 16,103 (0.46%) were assigned to the victim group. In the group without previous acute treatment, 111 (0.70%) of 15,933 victims and 14,626 (0.43%) of 3,431,423 nonvictims were newly prescribed acute treatment after the disaster, and new prescriptions for acute treatment were significantly more likely to occur in victims than in nonvictims (adjusted hazard ratio, 1.68; 95% CI, 1.39-2.02). The 2018Japan Floods increased the number of prescriptions for acute migraine medications among victims, suggesting that acute migraine attacks occurred more frequently after a natural disaster.

Verification of Damage Caused by the Genroku Earthquake and Tsunami from Tomb Stones

The Genroku earthquake and tsunami were the largest disaster in Japan during the Edo period. The earthquake occurred late at night on November 23, 1703, and widespread house collapses and fires in cities in Kanto region, including Edo (the old name of Tokyo) and Odawara. Following this, a huge tsunami hit the Pacific coast, which killed tens of thousands of people who lived there. This paper discusses a part of the actual situation of the tsunami disaster based on the tomb erected for the victims, as well as of the Buddhist memorial services held, such as kaimyo (posthumous Buddhist names), written on the tomb stones, ihai (Buddhist spirit tables), and kuyo-tou (memorial pagodas).