Disaccharide Molecules Research Articles

The effect of electric field on the pyrolysis of transformer insulation oil–paper based on molecular dynamics

The regular operation of transformers is significantly impacted by the insulation effectiveness of the transformer insulation oil–paper. In order to explore the mechanism of the influence of an electric field on the thermal decomposition performance of insulating oil–paper, this paper simulated the process of electrothermal coupling decomposition of insulating oil–paper from the micro-level based on molecular dynamics. It was determined that the insulating oil is made up of three 16-carbon hydrocarbon molecules, while the insulating paper is made up of 30 fibrous disaccharide molecules. Using the molecular dynamics simulation approach, the pyrolysis of the insulating oil and insulating paper under various electric field strengths was simulated, and the lysis of reactants and the distribution of products were statistically examined. This paper also studied how the electric field affected the microscopic process of the insulating oil–paper pyrolysis. The findings demonstrate that under the influence of electrothermal coupling, the big molecules of the insulating oil and insulating paper are pyrolyzed to produce a variety of tiny molecules. For the insulating oil, it is easily subject to electron displacement polarization under the influence of an external electric field since it contains non-polar molecules, especially impacted by an electric field of 100 V/m. For the insulating paper, its polar nature, on the other hand, makes itself a good candidate for guiding polarization when exposed to an external electric field. So, the greater the electric field strength is, the greater the impact on the thermal decomposition of the insulating paper is.

Evaluation of the effect of injectionsof both platelet-rich plasma and hyaluronic acid in patients with early knee osteoarthritis via the concentration of interleukin-1β in serum

Background Early knee osteoarthritis, which causes the degeneration of articular cartilage and subchondral bone, is a disease that worsens with time and is a major contributor to physical disability. Several inflammatory cy- tokines released by chondrocytes work in concert to trigger the production of enzymes that break down cartilage. A pro-inflammatory cytokine called interleukin-1β (IL-1 β ) accelerates cartilage breakdown after trauma, re- duces matrix production, and results in chondrocyte death. Dendritic cells and macrophages are the main sources of IL-1β. On the other hand, os- teoblasts, periodontal ligament cells, and gingival fibroblasts have the abil- ity to release IL-1β. Treatment pure- platelet rich plasma (P-PRP) effec- tiveness of transforming growth factor, platelet-derived growth factor, type I insulin-like growth factor, and the vascular endothelial growth factor is thought to be related to their release. Because of their capacity to increase matrix formation, growth factors have been widely researched for OA and cartilage regeneration. Hyaluronic acid (HA) is a glycosaminoglycan poly- mer composed of N-acetyl glucosamine and D-glucuronic acid disaccharide molecules. Early embryonic development, inflammatory, wound repair, cell differentiation, and viscoelasticity are all affected by HA, and other biologi- cal processes. Materials and Methods Elabscience kits were used to assess the serum IL-1β level. The experimental investigation included 18 control groups, 10 HA injections, and 21 pure PRP injections. age ranged from 30 to 80. The study was excluded all individuals with advanced osteoarthritis in the knee, COVID-19, diabetes, and autoimmune diseases. the time frame running from November 2021 until June 2022. Other variables in our research were age, gender, family history, use of antihypertensive medications or medica- tions for other disorders, and body mass index (BMI). Results The findings of this study demonstrate elevated IL-1β levels in patients with early KOA before treatments injection compared with the healthy control. After treatments injection, the level of IL-1β was decreased compared with before injection. Conclusions IL-1β could be one of the prognostic signs of early KOA

Dehydrogenation versus deprotonation of disaccharide molecules in vacuum, a thorough theoretical investigation

Dehydrogenation versus deprotonation of disaccharide molecules in vacuum, a thorough theoretical investigation

Dehydrogenation versus deprotonation of disaccharide molecules in vacuum: a thorough theoretical investigation.

Dehydrogenation and deprotonation of sucrose and trehalose molecules in vacuum is theoretically studied by using ab initio calculations in the framework of the density functional theory. The differences in the structural, electronic, energetic and vibrational properties of dehydrogenated and deprotonated molecules are discussed, depending on the site from which the hydrogen atom or the proton has been removed. The dehydrogenated molecules are found to be stable, regardless of which hydrogen atom is removed. This contrasts with the instability of the deprotonated molecules, where break-ups or structural reorganizations of the molecule are observed in 20–30% of the cases, but only when the hydrogen atom whose proton is removed was bonded to a carbon atom. Considering the stability and possible rearrangements of the hydrogen network of the deprotonated/dehydrogenated molecule, the formation of additional hydrogen-bridge bonds compared with the nominal molecule appears to be more pronounced for the deprotonated molecules than for the dehydrogenated ones. Moreover, our calculations show that the hydrogen-transfer energy barriers are usually larger for the deprotonated molecules than for the dehydrogenated ones. Finally, compared with the nominal molecule, the vibrational frequency spectrum is shifted to lower frequencies for both the dehydrogenated and the deprotonated molecules.

Role of Mono- and Disaccharide Combination in Cryoprotective Medium for Rooster Semen to Ensure Cryoresistance of Spermatozoa.

The combination of saccharides in the composition of a cryopreservation medium may represent a promising method for the preservation of the reproductive cells of male birds. In the current study, cryoprotective media with a combined composition of mono- and di-saccharides were developed. The degree of penetration of reducing saccharide molecules (maltose—Mal20 medium) and non-reducing disaccharide molecules (trehalose—Treh20 medium) from the cryoprotective medium into the cytosol of rooster spermatozoa was studied. LCM control media without disaccharides were used as the control. The number of maltose molecules penetrating from the outside into the cytosol of the spermatozoon was 1.06 × 104, and the number of trehalose molecules was 3.98 × 104. Using a combination of maltose and fructose, the progressive motility of frozen/thawed semen and the fertility rates of eggs were significantly higher ((p < 0.05) 40.2% and 68.5%, respectively) than when using a combination of trehalose and fructose in a cryoprotective diluent (33.4% and 62.4%, respectively). A higher rate of chromatin integrity at the level of 92.4% was obtained when using Treh20 versus 74.5% Mal20 (p < 0.05). Maltose positively affected the preservation of frozen/thawed sperm in the genital tract of hens. On the seventh day from the last insemination when using Mal20, the fertilization of eggs was 42.6% and only 27.3% when using Treh20. Despite the same molecular weight, maltose and trehalose have different physicochemical and biological properties that determine their function and effectiveness as components of cryoprotective media.

Bacterial Peptidoglycan Fragments Differentially Regulate Innate Immune Signaling.

The human innate immune system responds to both pathogen and commensal bacteria at the molecular level using bacterial peptidoglycan (PG) recognition elements. Traditionally, synthetic and commercially accessible PG monosaccharide units known as muramyl dipeptide (MDP) and N-glycolyl MDP (ng-MDP) have been used to probe the mechanism of innate immune activation of pattern recognition receptors, such as NOD-like receptors. However, bacterial PG is a dynamic and complex structure, with various chemical modifications and trimming mechanisms that result in the production of disaccharide-containing elements. These molecules pose as attractive targets for immunostimulatory screening; however, studies are limited because of their synthetic accessibility. Inspired by disaccharide-containing compounds produced from the gut microbe Lactobacillus acidophilus, a robust and scalable chemical synthesis of PG-based disaccharide ligands was implemented. Together with a monosaccharide PG library, compounds were screened for their ability to stimulate proinflammatory genes in bone-marrow-derived macrophages. The data reveal distinct gene induction patterns for monosaccharide and disaccharide PG units, suggesting that PG innate immune signaling is more complex than a one activator–one pathway program, as biologically relevant fragments induce transcriptional programs to different degrees. These disaccharide molecules will serve as critical immunostimulatory tools to more precisely define specialized innate immune regulatory mechanisms that distinguish between commensal and pathogenic bacteria residing in the microbiome.

Crystal structure of methyl α-l-rhamno-pyranosyl-(1→2)-α-l-rhamno-pyran-oside monohydrate.

The title compound, C13H24O9·H2O, a structural model for part of bacterial O-anti-gen polysaccharides from Shigella flexneri and Escherichia coli, crystallizes with four independent disaccharide mol-ecules and four water mol-ecules in the asymmetric unit. The conformation at the glycosidic linkage joining the two rhamnosyl residues is described by the torsion angles φH of 39, 30, 37 and 37°, and ψH of -32, -35, -31 and -32°, which are the major conformation region known to be populated in an aqueous solution. The hexo-pyran-ose rings have the 1 C 4 chair conformation. In the crystal, the disaccharide and water mol-ecules are associated through O-H⋯O hydrogen bonds, forming a layer parallel to the bc plane. The layers stack along the a axis via hydro-phobic inter-actions between the methyl groups.

The threshold algorithm: Description of the methodology and new developments.

Understanding the dynamics of complex systems requires the investigation of their energy landscape. In particular, the flow of probability on such landscapes is a central feature in visualizing the time evolution of complex systems. To obtain such flows, and the concomitant stable states of the systems and the generalized barriers among them, the threshold algorithm has been developed. Here, we describe the methodology of this approach starting from the fundamental concepts in complex energy landscapes and present recent new developments, the threshold-minimization algorithm and the molecular dynamics threshold algorithm. For applications of these new algorithms, we draw on landscape studies of three disaccharide molecules: lactose, maltose, and sucrose.

Exploiting non-conserved residues to improve activity and stability of Halothermothrix orenii β-glucosidase.

β-glucosidase (EC 3.2.1.21; BG) cleaves β-glucosidic linkages in disaccharide or glucose-substituted molecules. In an effort towards designing better BGs, we focused on the role of non-conserved residues across an otherwise homologous BG active site tunnel and designed mutants across the aglycone-binding site (V169C) and the gatekeeper residues (I246A) of the active site tunnel. We expressed in Escherichia coli, the Hore_15280 gene encoding a β-glucosidase (BG) in Halothermothrix orenii. The overexpressed and purified wild-type (B8CYA8) has a high specific activity of 345μmol/min/mg on pNPGlc and a half-life of 1.13h when assayed with pNPGlc at pH 7.1 and 70°C. The specific activities of V169C and I246A were 1.7 and 1.2 times higher than that of wild-type (WT) enzyme with the model substrate pNPGlc, while the activity on the natural substrate cellobiose was slightly higher to the WT. The two mutants were kinetically stable with 4.4- to 11-fold longer half-life compared to the WT enzyme. When the two mutations were combined to generate the V169C/I246A mutant, the specific activity increased to nearly twofold higher than WT on both substrates and the half-life increased fivefold. The two single mutants also show enhanced saccharification of insoluble natural biomass on supplementation of Trichoderma viride cellulase cocktail. These enhanced properties suggest the need for a closer look at the active site tunnel of these enzymes, especially across residues that are not conserved towards improving catalytic efficiencies.

Energy maps for glycosidic linkage conformations.

Glycosidic linkage conformations are the main factors in determining the shapes of disaccharide, oligosaccharide, and polysaccharide molecules. The conformations are expressed in terms of the torsion angles about the bonds from each ring of the disaccharide moiety to its glycosidic oxygen atom, and the probability of a given conformation is often expressed in terms of its free or potential energy. The energy surface or map for a disaccharide is a display of the energy plotted against the two torsion angles. Successful mapping allows a particular kind of energy calculation to provide the energy values for each conformation and avoids possible pitfalls. Although different methods are discussed, the main emphasis of this chapter is on the technical production of the maps and their exploitation in further understanding the shape of the molecule in question.

Lipo-chitin oligosaccharides, plant symbiosis signalling molecules that modulate mammalian angiogenesis in vitro.

Lipochitin oligosaccharides (LCOs) are signaling molecules required by ecologically and agronomically important bacteria and fungi to establish symbioses with diverse land plants. In plants, oligo-chitins and LCOs can differentially interact with different lysin motif (LysM) receptors and affect innate immunity responses or symbiosis-related pathways. In animals, oligo-chitins also induce innate immunity and other physiological responses but LCO recognition has not been demonstrated. Here LCO and LCO-like compounds are shown to be biologically active in mammals in a structure dependent way through the modulation of angiogenesis, a tightly-regulated process involving the induction and growth of new blood vessels from existing vessels. The testing of 24 LCO, LCO-like or oligo-chitin compounds resulted in structure-dependent effects on angiogenesis in vitro leading to promotion, or inhibition or nil effects. Like plants, the mammalian LCO biological activity depended upon the presence and type of terminal substitutions. Un-substituted oligo-chitins of similar chain lengths were unable to modulate angiogenesis indicating that mammalian cells, like plant cells, can distinguish between LCOs and un-substituted oligo-chitins. The cellular mode-of-action of the biologically active LCOs in mammals was determined. The stimulation or inhibition of endothelial cell adhesion to vitronectin or fibronectin correlated with their pro- or anti-angiogenic activity. Importantly, novel and more easily synthesised LCO-like disaccharide molecules were also biologically active and de-acetylated chitobiose was shown to be the primary structural basis of recognition. Given this, simpler chitin disaccharides derivatives based on the structure of biologically active LCOs were synthesised and purified and these showed biological activity in mammalian cells. Since important chronic disease states are linked to either insufficient or excessive angiogenesis, LCO and LCO-like molecules may have the potential to be a new, carbohydrate-based class of therapeutics for modulating angiogenesis.

High-resolution structures ofNeotermes koshunensisβ-glucosidase mutants provide insights into the catalytic mechanism and the synthesis of glucoconjugates

NkBgl, a β-glucosidase from Neotermes koshunensis, is a β-retaining glycosyl hydrolase family 1 enzyme that cleaves β-glucosidic linkages in disaccharide or glucose-substituted molecules. β-Glucosidases have been widely used in several applications. For example, mutagenesis of the attacking nucleophile in β-glucosidase has been conducted to convert it into a glycosynthase for the synthesis of oligosaccharides. Here, several high-resolution structures of wild-type or mutated NkBgl in complex with different ligand molecules are reported. In the wild-type NkBgl structures it was found that glucose-like glucosidase inhibitors bind to the glycone-binding pocket, allowing the buffer molecule HEPES to remain in the aglycone-binding pocket. In the crystal structures of NkBgl E193A, E193S and E193D mutants Glu193 not only acts as the catalytic acid/base but also plays an important role in controlling substrate entry and product release. Furthermore, in crystal structures of the NkBgl E193D mutant it was found that new glucoconjugates were generated by the conjugation of glucose (hydrolyzed product) and HEPES/EPPS/opipramol (buffer components). Based on the wild-type and E193D-mutant structures of NkBgl, the glucosidic bond of cellobiose or salicin was hydrolyzed and a new bond was subsequently formed between glucose and HEPES/EPPS/opipramol to generate new glucopyranosidic products through the transglycosylation reaction in the NkBgl E193D mutant. This finding highlights an innovative way to further improve β-glucosidases for the enzymatic synthesis of oligosaccharides.

Potential of mean force for separation of the repeating units in cellulose and hemicellulose

As a first step toward understanding the energetics of removal of cello-oligomers from the cellulose surface, we have performed umbrella sampling calculations to determine the free energy required for separation of repeating units of cellulose and hemicellulose from each other. Molecular dynamics (MD) simulations were performed for both the stacked and non-stacked arrangements of the cellobiose pair system and the xylobiose pair system. These stacked and non-stacked arrangements were taken as representative systems for the crystalline and amorphous domains in cellulose and hemicellulose. In addition, similar calculations were also carried out to determine the energetics involved in the separation of the cellobiose–xylobiose molecule pair in the non-stacked arrangement. The potential of mean force profiles exhibit a single minimum in all cases and are qualitatively similar. Our results show that the location of the minimum as well as the depth of the well can be correlated with the size of the disaccharide molecules.

Structural and functional analysis of three β-glucosidases from bacterium Clostridium cellulovorans, fungus Trichoderma reesei and termite Neotermes koshunensis

β-glucosidases (EC 3.2.1.21) cleave β-glucosidic linkages in disaccharide or glucose-substituted molecules and play important roles in fundamental biological processes. β-Glucosidases have been widely used in agricultural, biotechnological, industrial and medical applications. In this study, a high yield expression (70-250 mg/l) in Escherichia coli of the three functional β-glucosidase genes was obtained from the bacterium Clostridium cellulovorans (CcBglA), the fungus Trichoderma reesei (TrBgl2), and the termite Neotermes koshunensis (NkBgl) with the crystal structures of CcBglA, TrBgl2 and NkBgl, determined at 1.9Å, 1.63Å and 1.34Å resolution, respectively. The overall structures of these enzymes are similar to those belonging to the β-retaining glycosyl hydrolase family 1, which have a classical (α/β)(8)-TIM barrel fold. Each contains a slot-like active site cleft and a more variable outer opening, related to its function in processing different lengths of β-1,4-linked glucose derivatives. The two essential glutamate residues for hydrolysis are spatially conserved in the active site. In both TrBgl2 and NkBgl structures, a Tris molecule was found to bind at the active site, explaining the slight inhibition of hydrolase activity observed in Tris buffer. Manganese ions at 10mM exerted an approximate 2-fold enzyme activity enhancement of all three β-glucosidases, with CcBglA catalyzing the most efficiently in hydrolysis reaction and tolerating Tris as well as some metal inhibition. In summary, our results for the structural and functional properties of these three β-glucosidases from various biological sources open important avenues of exploration for further practical applications.

Hydrate Properties and Molecular Mobility in the Protein-Disaccharide Systems at Low Humidity

The freeze dried samples of bovine serum albumin (BSA) and BSA—saccharose, BSA—lactose, and BSA—trehalose complexes were studied by the proton NMR relaxation technique in the humidity range from 1 to 20%. The disaccharide molecules were found to assume translational mobility at the humidity higher than 12% per dry weight. It was established that, at the same water content in the samples, saccharose, lactose, and trehalose possess, respectively, high, intermediate, and low mobility. To display water “dissolving” properties in these systems at a humidity higher than 12%, two, three, and four water molecules are required additionally per each sugar molecule for, respectively, saccharose, lactose, and trehalose.

The α,α-(1→1) Linkage of Trehalose Is Key to Anhydrobiotic Preservation

This study compares the efficacy of six disaccharides and glucose for the preservation of solid supported lipid bilayers (SLBs) upon exposure to air. Disaccharide molecules containing an alpha,alpha-(1-->1) linkage, such as alpha,alpha-trehalose and alpha,alpha-galacto-trehalose, were found to be effective at retaining bilayer structure in the absence of water. These sugars are known to crystallize in a clam shell conformation. Other saccharides, which are found to crystallize in more open structures, did not preserve the SLB structure during the drying process. These included the nonreducing sugar, sucrose, as well as maltose, lactose, and the monosaccharide, glucose. In fact, even close analogs to alpha,alpha-trehalose, such as alpha,beta-trehalose, which connects its glucopyranose rings via a (1-->1) linkage in an axial, equatorial fashion, permitted nearly complete delamination and destruction of supported bilayers upon exposure to air. Lipids with covalently attached sugar molecules such as ganglioside GM1, lactosyl phosphatidylethanolamine, and glucosylcerebroside were also ineffective at preserving bilayer structure. The liquid crystalline-to-gel phase transition temperature of supported phospholipid bilayers was tested in the presence of sugars in a final set of experiments. Only alpha,alpha-trehalose and alpha,alpha-galacto-trehalose depressed the phase transition temperature, whereas the introduction of other sugar molecules into the bulk solution caused the phase transition temperature of the bilayer to increase. These results point to the importance of the axial-axial linkage of disaccharides for preserving SLB structure.

신규 합성 당지질 함유 리포솜의 In Vitro 안정성

리포솜은 수십~수백 나노미터 크기의 소포체(small vesicle)로서 약물전달에 유용한 구조체이나 체내 혈류 순환계(blood circulatory system)에서 구조적 불안정성에 의해 체내 순환시간이 짧고 세망내피계(reticuloendothelial system)에 의해 소실되어 이를 개선하기 위한 다양한 연구가 시도되고 있다. 본 연구에서는 이당류(disaccharide)로서 락토오스와 슈크로스가 1,2-디스테아로일-sn-글리세로-3-포스포에탄올아민(1,2-Distearoylsn-glycero-3-phosphoethanolamine, DSPE)과 공유결합된 새로운 당-DSPE 유도체를 합성하고 이를 리포솜의 구성성분으로 하는 리포솜을 제조함으로써 리포솜의 표면이 이당으로 수식된 리포솜을 제조하였다. 제조된 리포솜의 입자크기는 대략 100 nm였으며, 표면전하 값은 당이 수식되지 않은 대조군 리포솜이 -10 mV를 나타내었으나 당-DSPE 유도체를 함유한 리포솜의 경우 리포솜 표면에 존재하는 당의 수산화기에 의하여 표면전하의 값은 -25 mV를 나타내었다. 리포솜 내부에 모델약물인 독소루비신(doxorubicin)의 로딩효율은 약 90%를 나타내었다. 당-DSPE 유도체 함유 리포솜의 in vitro 안정성은 혈청 내에서 단백흡착량의 변화 및 리포솜의 입자크기를 관찰하여 평가하였다. 당-인지질 유도체를 함유한 리포솜은 당-인지질 유도체를 함유하지 않은 리포솜 또는 폴리에틸렌글리콜(PEG) 수식 리포솜에 비해 단백흡착의 양과 혈청 내 입자크기의 변화가 적은 것으로 관찰되었다. 이당이 결합된 DSPE와 이를 함유한 리포솜은 혈액내 안정성이 향상되어 체순환계 내에서 장시간 순환이 가능한 약물전달체로서 유용할 것이라 사료된다. Liposomes having particle size from several tens to hundreds nanometers are efficient carriers for injectable drug delivery. Enhancement of liposome stability in bloodstream has been studied because of its relatively short circulation time and fast clearance from human body by reticuloendothelial system (RES) in blood vessel. In this study, new disaccharide-1,2-distearoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoethanolamine (DSPE) derivatives in which lactose or sucrose as the disaccharide molecule was conjugated covalently to DSPE were synthesized. Liposomes of which surface had disaccharide molecules were prepared by incorporating the disaccharide-DSPE into liposomes as one of their lipid components. Particle size of the prepared liposomes was approximately 100 nm. The liposomes of which surface were modified with the disaccharide-DSPE showed -25 mV of zeta potential value due to the presence of hydroxyl groups on their surface, while the unmodified control liposomes showed -10 mV of zeta potential value. Loading efficiency of model drug, doxorubicin, into liposomes was about 90%. Stability of the disaccharide-modified liposomes in vitro was evaluated by monitoring the amount of protein adsorption and particle size of the liposomes in serum. Disaccharide-modified liposomes were more stable in serum than unmodified control liposomes or polyethyleneglycol (PEG)-modified liposomes due to less adsorption of serum protein and hence less increase of their particle size. The liposomes of which surface was modified with disaccharide-DSPE conjugate can be used as long-circulating carriers for drugs having high toxicity or short half-life time due to their enhanced stability in blood circulatory system.

Morphological investigations of disaccharide molecules for growth inhibition of ice crystals

Freezing of solutions including disaccharides (trehalose, sucrose, and maltose) has been investigated by microscopic observations of freeze-fractured replicas using FE-TEM. Three typical features were observed: the smooth surface considered as the ice crystal, fine particles as the precipitated disaccharide molecules, and remaining part as the glass state of the solution. The expanded observations of fine particle and its distribution investigations suggested that it was larger than 10 nm in size and averaged approximately 20–30 nm in diameter. The smallest particle was estimated to include several hundred disaccharide molecules. Based on systematic observations of trehalose solutions regarding concentrations and freezing rates, we concluded that ice crystal growth was inhibited by trehalose molecules. Since the ice crystal size reduced exponentially with increase in trehalose concentration, we could control ice crystal size formed in the frozen material. The growth inhibition of ice crystals with trehalose resulted both from a reduction in the free water in the solution due to a significant hydration effect and from an enhancement of nucleation of the ice crystals. It was confirmed that trehalose was more effective than the other disaccharide solutions examined for inhibiting the growth of ice crystals.

The effect of carbohydrate disaccharide molecules on the Raman spectra of H2O and D2O.

The effect of carbohydrate disaccharide molecules on the Raman spectra of H2O and D2O.

Molecular Simulation Study of Phospholipid Bilayers and Insights of the Interactions with Disaccharides

Molecular simulations of hydrated dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine lipid bilayers have been performed for temperatures in the range of 250–450 K. The area per headgroup increases with temperature from 58 to 77 Å 2. Other properties such as hydration number, alkyl tail order parameter, diffusion coefficients, and radial distribution functions exhibit a clear dependence on temperature. Simulations of bilayers have also been performed in the presence of two disaccharides, namely trehalose and sucrose, at concentrations of up to 18 wt % (lipid-free basis). The simulated area per headgroup of the bilayer is not affected by the presence of the disaccharides, suggesting that the overall structure of the bilayer remains undisturbed. The results of simulations reveal that the interaction of disaccharide molecules with the bilayer occurs at the surface of the bilayer, and it is governed by the formation of multiple hydrogen bonds to specific groups of the lipid. Disaccharide molecules are observed to adopt specific conformations to fit onto the surface topology of the bilayer, often interacting with up to three different lipids simultaneously. At high disaccharide concentrations, the results of simulations indicate that disaccharides can serve as an effective replacement for water under anhydrous conditions, which helps explain their effectiveness as lyophilization agents for liposomes and cells.