Direct Energy Research Articles

A new control strategy of direct exergy balance for coal-fired power plants: Fundamentals and performance evaluation

In order to facilitate the increasing penetration of grid-connected renewable power, coal-fired power plants should operate more and more flexibly. Most of the-state-of-the-art control strategies, which are mainly based on the idea of direct energy balance, cannot perform well when coal-fired power plants change load with high load cycling ramp rate. To enhance the operational flexibility of coal-fired power plants, the control idea of the direct exergy balance is proposed in this study, which directly characterizes the work capacity balance between the boiler and the steam turbine. The new control strategy of direct exergy balance emphasizes the feedback of the deviation between the turbine exergy demand signal and the boiler exergy signal. Dynamic models of a reference power plant were developed and validated, and performances of control strategies based on direct energy balance and direct exergy balance were evaluated and compared. In the 50 %–75 % load cycling process of the reference power plant, the control strategy of direct exergy balance demonstrated markedly improvements in the load cycling ramp rate (29 % relatively), the load cycling comprehensive index Kp (39.4 %), and reduction in the maximum deviations (28.2 %), overshoots (59.8 %), and cumulative deviations (36.9 %) of the key thermal parameters. In conclusion, the control strategy of direct exergy balance significantly strengthens the control performance during rapid load cycling processes and attains a notable enhancement in operational flexibility and a slight improvement in energy efficiency of coal-fired power plant.

Influence of Solid Solution Time on Microstructure and Precipitation Strengthening of Novel Maraging Steels

Effective subsequent heat treatment is crucial for achieving the desired microstructure and excellent mechanical properties in laser-deposited high-performance maraging steel. In this paper, we systematically investigate the synergistic relationship and tuning mechanism of different solution treatment times on the microstructure-property synergy of new maraging steels fabricated using laser direct energy deposition (LDED). To determine the optimal heat treatment process, solution treatment was conducted at 840°C for varying durations, followed by aging at 530°C for 2 hours to induce precipitation strengthening. The results indicate that after 2 hours of solution treatment, the alloy exhibits optimal ductility with an elongation of 7.90% ± 0.15%, attributed to the refinement of the martensitic matrix and precipitated phases, along with the formation of a small amount of residual austenite. When the solution treatment time is extended to 4 hours, the alloy achieves its highest tensile strength, reaching 1958 ± 24 MPa. However, the elongation decreases to 7.31% ± 0.12% due to the coarsening of the martensite and secondary phase particles. After 6 hours of solution treatment, significant coarsening and aggregation of the martensite and Fe2Mo intermetallic compounds markedly reduce the hardness, strength, and toughness of the alloy. By adjusting the solution treatment time, the size, morphology, and distribution of the martensitic matrix, Fe2Mo, and nanoscale precipitated phases play a critical role in the strengthening and fracture processes. Therefore, optimizing the precipitation behavior of the martensitic matrix and Fe2Mo intermetallic compounds through rational solution heat treatment is key to enhancing the mechanical properties of laser-deposited new maraging steels.

Fabrication of Zinc Oxide Thin Films by Sol-Gel Dip Coating Process

Zinc oxide (ZnO) is a non-toxic material known for its distinctive physical and chemical properties, including a direct band gap energy of 3.37 eV and a large exciton binding energy of 60 meV, which contribute to its significant thermal and chemical stability at room temperature. Due to these characteristics, ZnO plays a critical role in various applications, such as UV light emitters, transparent conducting thin films in electronic devices, gas sensors, piezoelectric materials, transducers, and as a transparent conductive oxide (TCO) layer in thin-film photoelectrochemical cells. Numerous fabrication techniques have been employed to produce ZnO thin films. However, many of these methods require costly equipment, high vacuum environments, and elevated temperatures. In contrast, the sol-gel process stands out as a convenient, cost-effective, and versatile method for ZnO thin film fabrication. It offers advantages such as simplicity, low crystallization temperature, ease of reproducibility, molecular-level homogeneity, and precise compositional control. In this study, ZnO thin films were deposited onto Indium Tin Oxide (ITO) glass substrates using the sol-gel dip coating method, with varying preparative parameters: sol concentrations and annealing temperatures. The resulting samples were characterized using a UV-visible spectrophotometer, X-ray diffraction (XRD), field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM), and energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX). The results demonstrated that the unique properties of ZnO thin films are highly dependent on the preparative parameters. Specifically, the band gap energy decreased from 3.25 eV to 3.18 eV with increasing sol concentration and also showed a similar decline with higher annealing temperatures. XRD patterns revealed a smaller full width at half maximum (FWHM) of the most intense peak (002) at higher sol concentrations and annealing temperatures, indicating an increase in crystallite size. FESEM images highlighted distinct morphological changes corresponding to the variations in sol precursor concentration and annealing temperature, while EDX analysis confirmed the formation of highly pure ZnO thin films on ITO glass substrates.

Optical Studies of Silver Oxide Deposited Thin Films Using the RF Sputtering Technique

Background/Objectives: Silver Oxide is an efficient material because it is used in batteries. Apart from this, it is a moderate oxidizing agent in a variety of processes including the oxidation of aldehydes to carboxylic acids. The objective of the study is to synthesize silver oxide films by RF sputtering technique so that synthesized films can be inserted in the spectrophotometer for optical study. Methods: Silver Oxide films were deposited on Fluorine-doped Tin Oxide (FTO) glass using Radio Frequency (RF) sputtering method and annealed at 200 °C, for two hours, and then it was used in DK2 Ratio recording Spectrophotometer to analyze absorption and transmission data. Findings: The thickness of the films was measured using a non-contact optical Profilometer, in the range of (42– 660) nm. The films were subsequently exposed to optical characterization, revealing exceptionally low transmittance and high absorbance. The band gap is estimated to be 2.2 eV. The X-ray diffraction (XRD) studies reveal that the material is crystalline and Miller indices have also been determined. The morphology and topography of the thin films were analyzed using Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscope (FESEM) and the chemical composition was estimated using EDS. Novelty: The present work reveals that the optical properties are highly dependent on the thickness and the material distribution. The direct band gap energy is evaluated from the absorption spectrum which comes out to be 2.2 eV. The XRD spectra synthesized Silver Oxide films are crystalline in nature. Keywords: Silver Oxide, Band gap, XRD, FESEM

Microstructure Refinement of Bulk Inconel 718 Parts During Fabrication with EB-PBF Using Scanning Strategies: Transition from Bidirectional-Raster to Stochastic Point-Based Melting

Inconel 718 is a widely popular aerospace superalloy known for its high-temperature performance and resistance to oxidation, creep, and corrosion. Traditional manufacturing methods, like casting and powder metallurgy, face challenges with intricate shapes that can result in porosity and uniformity issues. On the other hand, Additive Manufacturing (AM) techniques such as Powder Bed Fusion (PBF) and Direct Energy Deposition (DED) can allow the creation of intricate single-part components to reduce weight and maintain structural integrity. However, AM parts often exhibit directional solidification, leading to anisotropic properties and potential crack propagation sites. To address this, post-processing treatments like HIP and heat treatment are necessary. This study explores the effects of the raster and stochastic spot melt scanning strategies on the microstructural and mechanical properties of IN718 parts fabricated using Electron Beam Powder Bed Fusion (EB-PBF). This research demonstrates that raster scanning produces columnar grains with higher mean aspect ratios. Stochastic spot melt scanning facilitates the formation of equiaxed grains, which enhances microstructural refinement and lowers anisotropy. The highest microstructural values were recorded in the raster-produced columnar grain structure. Conversely, the stochastic melt-produced transition from columnar to equiaxed grain structure demonstrated increased hardness with decreasing grain size; however, the hardness of the smallest equiaxed grain structure was slightly less than that of the columnar grain structure. These findings underscore the vital importance of scanning strategies in optimizing the EB-PBF process to enhance material properties.

Growth of homoepitaxial single crystal diamond by microwave plasma CVD in H2-CH4-O2 gas mixtures at high microwave power densities

Single crystal diamond growth by microwave plasma assisted CVD in oxygen-containing gas mixtures is attractive in view of possibility to realize a prolonged non-stoped synthesis process and to minimize defects and impurities in the produced material. We studied the homoepitaxial diamond growth on (100) oriented substrates in H2-CH4-O2 environment at high pressures (300 Torr) and high microwave power density (≈400 W/cm3) at variable O2 content (up to 3.5 %) in the plasma. A low-coherence optical interferometry and optical emission (OE) spectroscopy was used to measure in situ the growth rate and probe the plasma chemistry, respectively. Depending on CH4 content the growth rate dependence on the concentration [O2] either shows a maximum at certain [O2], or a monotonic decline, up to complete stop of the growth at some critical O2 percentage (specific for each methane content) in the mixture. We found CH, Hβ, C2 and C3 lines in OE spectra from the plasma to monotonically quenched with O2 adding, particularly, disappearance of the C2 line coincidences with growth rate going to zero. High-quality homoepitaxial diamond layers were produced at moderate growth rate at optimal gas composition and characterized with Raman spectroscopy. Moreover, a significant reduction in the stress on (111) oriented substrates owing to O2 addition was observed.

A Short Review on the Wire-Based Directed Energy Deposition of Metals: Mechanical and Microstructural Properties and Quality Enhancement

Wire-based directed energy deposition (WDED) is an emerging additive manufacturing process garnering significant attention due to its potential for fabricating metal components with tailored mechanical and microstructural properties. This study reviews the WDED process, focusing on fabrication techniques, mechanical behaviors, microstructural characteristics, and quality enhancement methods. Utilizing data from the Web of Science, the study identifies leading countries in WDED research and highlights a growing interest in the field, particularly in materials engineering. Stainless steel, titanium, aluminum, and copper-based alloys are prominent materials for WDED applications. Furthermore, the study explores post-processing techniques such as machining, heat treatment, and surface finishing as integral steps for quality enhancement in WDED components.

Printing the Future Layer by Layer: A Comprehensive Exploration of Additive Manufacturing in the Era of Industry 4.0

In the era of Industry 4.0, 3D printing, or additive manufacturing (AM), has revolutionized product design and manufacturing across various sectors. This review explores the evolution of 3D printing technology and its impact on industrial innovation, highlighting advancements in aeronautics, the automotive industry, and biomedicine. Various AM processes, such as binder jetting, direct energy deposition, and powder bed fusion, and materials like metals, polymers, ceramics, and composites, are discussed. Innovations like high-speed sintering, continuous liquid interface production, and bioprinting demonstrate ongoing advancements. The potential of 3D printing in personalized medical applications is emphasized due to its flexibility in geometry and materials. Despite progress, challenges like standardization, material quality, recycling, sustainability, and economic feasibility hinder widespread adoption. Overcoming these challenges is crucial for optimizing 3D printing technologies, ensuring high-quality, efficient, and affordable production. The review also addresses the future prospects of 4D and 5D printing technologies and their potential applications in various industries. This overview underscores 3D printing’s role in shaping the future of manufacturing within the context of Industry 5.0, emphasizing human–machine collaboration and sustainability.

Two-Dimensional X-Ray Diffraction (2D-XRD) and Micro-Computed Tomography (Micro-CT) Characterization of Additively Manufactured 316L Stainless Steel

In-depth quality assessment of 3D-printed parts is vital in determining their overall characteristics. This study focuses on the use of 2D X-Ray diffraction (2D-XRD) and X-Ray micro-computed tomography (micro-CT) techniques to evaluate the crystallography and internal defects of 316L SS parts fabricated by the powder-based direct energy deposition (DED) technique. The test samples were printed in a controlled argon environment with variable laser power and print speeds, using a customized deposition pattern to achieve a high-density print (>99%). Multiple features, including hardness, elastic modulus, porosity, crystallographic orientation, and grain morphology and size were evaluated as a function of print parameters. Micro-CT was used for in-depth internal defect analysis, revealing lack-of-fusion and gas-induced (keyhole) pores and no observable micro-cracks or inclusions in most of the printed body. Some porosity was found mostly concentrated in the initial layers of print and decreased along the build direction. 2D-XRD was used for phase analysis and grain size determination. The phase analysis revealed single phase γ-austenitic FCC phase without any detectable presence of the δ-ferrite phase. A close correlation was found between Electron Backscatter Diffraction (EBSD) and 2D-XRD results on the average size distribution and the crystallographic orientation of grains in the sample. This work demonstrates the fast and reliable as-printed crystallography analysis using 2D-XRD compared to the EBSD technique, with potential for in-line integration.

Prediction of catchment efficiency in direct energy deposition using dimensional analysis and machine learning

Direct Energy Deposition (DED) is an additive manufacturing process used to fabricate thin/thick-walled structures and high-value component restorations. As blown powder-based DED gains prominence, catchment efficiency becomes imperative for enhancing material utilization and process effectiveness. This study focuses on predicting catchment efficiency within a DED process by investigating four significant process parameters: laser power, powder feed rate, carrier gas flow rate, and deposition speed. The primary objective is to devise a dimensionless number capable of predicting catchment efficiency based on a combination of these parameters, categorizing efficiency into low, medium, and high regions. This approach reduces the need for resource-intensive experimentation. The experimental validation of the proposed dimensionless number was conducted, showing an error rate of around 8%. Additionally, six machine learning classifier algorithms – Support Vector Machines, K-Nearest Neighbours, Decision Tree, Random Forest, Linear Regression, and Gaussian Naive Bayes – were employed to categorize catchment efficiency zones. Support Vector Machine demonstrated the best performance with a predictive accuracy of 0.98. This study provides a methodology for catchment efficiency prediction, enhancing decision-making and resource optimization, and can be used to optimize process parameters for thin-wall or relatively thin-wall fabrication.

Effect of Foreign Direct Investment, Energy Consumption and Unemployment on Income Distribution in Malaysia

The paper analyses the relationships between Foreign Direct Investment (FDI), Energy Consumption, Unemployment, and their effects on Income Distribution in Malaysia from 1990-2022. Despite economic growth, Malaysia faces income inequality, especially among ethnic groups. The study uses ARDL regression to find that FDI promotes income distribution by creating jobs and facilitating technology transfer. Increased energy availability boosts industrial production, which is crucial for equitable income distribution. High unemployment, particularly among graduates, exacerbates income inequality. Government initiatives aim to address unemployment through skills enhancement and entrepreneurship. The study concludes that FDI and energy consumption positively influence income distribution, while unemployment has a negative impact. The findings are valuable for policymakers in fostering inclusive growth and equitable income distribution in Malaysia. As Malaysia is an export-oriented country, these insights can lead to impactful improvements in the export sector, further boosting employment opportunities and economic resilience.

Integrated Control of Thermal Residual Stress and Mechanical Properties by Adjusting Pulse-Wave Direct Energy Deposition.

Directed energy deposition with laser beam (DED-LB) components experience significant residual stress due to rapid heating and cooling cycles. Excessive residual tensile stress can lead to cracking in the deposited sample, resulting in service failure. This study utilized digital image correlation (DIC) and thermal imaging to observe the in situ temporal evolution of strain and temperature gradients across all layers of a deposited 316 L stainless steel thin wall during DED-LB. Both continuous-wave (CW) and pulsed-wave (PW) laser modes were employed. Additionally, the characteristics of thermal cracks and geometric dislocation density were examined. The results reveal that PW mode generates a lower temperature gradient, which in turn reduces thermal strain. In CW mode, the temperature-stress relationship curve of the additive manufacturing sample enters the "brittleness temperature zone", leading to the formation of numerous hot cracks. In contrast, PW mode samples are almost free of cracks, as the metal avoids crack-sensitive regions during solidification, thereby minimizing hot crack formation. Overall, these factors collectively contribute to reduced residual stress and improved mechanical properties through the adjustment of pulsed-wave laser deposition.

Additive manufacturing of polyamide 12 bulk structures using directed energy deposition with a thulium laser: Effect of process conditions on morphology and mechanical performance

Laser-based directed energy deposition of polymers (DED-LB/P) is a highly flexible additive manufacturing process capable of fabricating three-dimensional structures with a high degree of customization on free-form surfaces. In this article, the manufacturability of polyamide 12 bulk structures using DED-LB/P in combination with a thulium laser operating at a wavelength of 1.94 μm is investigated for the first time. The typical absorption bands at this wavelength eliminate the need for additives such as carbon-based nanoparticles, which would limit the range of applications. The generated structures were analyzed regarding porosity, thermal behavior, and mechanical properties to evaluate the potential of DED-LB/P with a thulium laser. As a consequence of the evaporation of absorbed moisture or ethanol residues resulting from powder preparation, a thermal pretreatment of the polymer powder reduced the porosity of the DED-LB/P structures to 0.9%. Depending on the processing parameters, the crystallinity of the produced structures ranged from 25.6% to 29.9%. For the tensile tests, the required geometries were milled from the DED-LB/P bulk structures. The results show that an ultimate tensile strength of up to 52 MPa, an elongation at break of up to 58%, and Young's modulus of up to 1590 MPa can be achieved. These remarkable mechanical properties are primarily attributed to the complete melting of the powder particles in DED-LB/P and the improved surface quality resulting from the milling process.

Characterization and simulation of AlSi10Mg reinforcement structures by direct energy deposition by means of laser beam and powder

Among metal additive manufacturing technologies, direct energy deposition (DED) processes have the advantage to be easily integrable in a manufacturing chain with other conventional technologies. This characteristic can be exploited by designing reinforcement structures to be added by DED onto pre-existing subcomponents to tailor the part’s mechanical properties while keeping the part lightweight. This study focuses on DED by means of laser beam and powder process optimization to improve material quality and geometrical accuracy of AlSi10Mg reinforcement structures while preventing excessive thermal deformations and material dilution into the substrate. These results are compared with finite elements numerical simulations of the deposition process, comprising thermo-elastic deformation and material deposition, to predict the bending and reinforcement of the processed substrate. In particular, the model includes the deterministic prediction of the deposition profile as a function of the process parameters and a few condition-specific coefficients: once calibrated, the model was used to compare the numerical and experimental residual deformation of the reinforced sample, obtaining promising agreement. The reinforcement provided to a 1.5 mm thick substrate by a single wall of deposited materials, with cross-sectional dimensions of 2 mm in width and 2.5 mm in height, was evaluated by three points bending. With the reinforcement on the tensile side of the stresses, the energy absorbed by the material plastic deformation increased by 2.4% as compared to the substrate alone, while with the reinforcement on the compression side of the stresses the energy absorption increased by 75.8% on average.

Microstructure and properties behavior of in situ synthesized with high content (Ti, W) C reinforced In625 by two step-laser direct energy deposition

The formation of sensitive interface cracks and the difficulty in processing high-concentration Ni-based ceramic coatings via direct energy deposition (LDED) present major engineering challenges. To address these, high-quality In625/ceramic coatings with various mass contents of Ti, nickel-coated graphite (Ni3C), and WC were fabricated on QT250 using two-step laser directed energy deposition (TsLDED). The influence of the Ti/C: WC molar mass ratio on the bonding interface, microstructure, phase composition, and mechanical properties of the coatings was analyzed. The results indicated that grains at the In625/ceramic coating interface formed epitaxial growth, ensuring a robust bond. In situ synthesis of (Ti, W) C, WCx (WC and W2C), M23C6, and other precipitated phases were uniformly distributed, enhancing nucleation, refining microstructure, and improving mechanical properties. The addition of Ti facilitated the transformation of WCx to (Ti, W) C. High Ti and C concentrations promoted eutectic structure formation in the matrix phase, enhancing performance. The In625 + 56 % Ti – 14 % Ni3C – 30 % WC composite coating exhibited the highest microhardness and the lowest friction coefficient, with microhardness 5.61 and 3.6 times that of QT250 and In625 coatings, respectively, and a friction coefficient 0.3 times that of In625. Variations in the Ti/C: WC molar mass ratio directly affected the content, proportion, and type of (Ti, W) C, WCx, γ-Ni, and eutectic structures comprising M23C6, NiTix, Ni2W4C, Cr2Ti, and γ-Ni, influencing microstructure evolution and mechanical properties. The TsLDED process thus enables the preparation of In625/ceramic reinforced coatings with improved mechanical properties.

Grain refinement of Inconel 625 during wire-based directed energy deposition additive manufacturing by in-situ added TiB2 particles: Process development, microstructure evolution and mechanical characterization

In this study, a novel method for enhancing the quality of components fabricated by wire and arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) was developed. This approach employs an innovative mechanism featuring an actuator that dispenses a solution containing refinement particles (TiB2 inoculants), in conjunction with a soldering flux that vaporizes prior to reaching the electric arc. This leaves the particles to adhere to the welding wire or be carried by the shielding gas. By implementing this device, TiB2 particles were successfully incorporated into the molten pool during the WAAM process of Inconel 625 at levels of 0.31 and 0.56 wt%. Microstructural analysis reveals a significant reduction in the size of interdendritic segregation regions when TiB2 particles are introduced. Electron backscatter diffraction analysis further reveals the transformation of columnar grains into equiaxed grains. The average grain area decreased from 1823 μm2 in the as-built sample to 583 μm2 in the sample with a TiB2 content of 0.56 wt%. In addition, an improvement in the Inconel 625 fabricated by WAAM mechanical strength was observed due to the use of TiB2 inoculants, which was primarily attributed to the effect of the grain size refinement.

Machine learning analysis for melt pool geometry prediction of direct energy deposited SS316L single tracks

Machine learning analysis for melt pool geometry prediction of direct energy deposited SS316L single tracks

Preparation and Characterization of Au Quantum Dots Using Laser in Benzene and Study of the Pulse Energy effect on Quantum Size

Here, findings from a study on pulsed laser ablating of noble Au targets submerged in benzene solvent and a study on the effect of pulse energy on quantum size are presented. Three samples of gold quantum dots (AuQDs) are synthesized at pulse fluence of 4, 8, and 12 J/cm2, which is referred to as F1, F2, and F3, respectively. The prepared AuQDs were characterized by UV-Vis, HR-TEM, XRD, XPS, EDX, FTIR, Raman spectroscopy and Photoluminescence measurement. AuQDs that were synthesized have monocrystalline and cubic (FCC) structure, according to XRD patterns. It was found that the direct optical energy gap of AuQDs is enhanced to 2.6 eV. The emission peak of AuQDs photoluminescence emission spectra is at roughly 481, 445, and 437 nm, for F1, F2, F3 samples, respectively. The quantum size was reduced to 2 nm for sample F3. This strategy has the ability to prepare pure AuQDs in one step, with promising biosensor and bioimaging applications.

Facade Design and the Outdoor Acoustic Environment: A Case Study at Batna 1 University

The relationship between architectural design and outdoor acoustic environments remains underexplored, particularly in educational spaces where noise levels impact comfort and usability. This study investigates the impact of building facade height on the outdoor acoustic environment in university courtyards. Acoustic measurements were conducted in two courtyards at Batna 1 University, each surrounded by buildings with distinct facade heights. Key acoustic parameters, including reverberation time (RT), early decay time (EDT), rapid speech transmission index (RaSTI), Definition (D50), and sound pressure level (SPL) attenuation were evaluated at specified source-receiver distances. The results reveal a strong correlation between RT20 and distance at higher frequencies due to building facade reflections, while lower frequencies are more influenced by geometric configuration and material absorption properties. The results demonstrate that RT and EDT increase logarithmically or polynomially with distance, especially at higher frequencies (2000–4000 Hz), due to the decrease in direct sound energy and increase in reflected sound amplitude. Taller building facades lead to longer RT and EDT values compared to lower heights. D50 and RaSTI decrease polynomially with increasing source–receiver distance, with lower values observed in the courtyard with taller facades, indicating reduced speech clarity. The SPL attenuation is influenced by surrounding geometry, with the least reduction in the courtyard with lower facade heights, followed by the taller facade courtyard, contrasting with semi-free field conditions. These findings highlight the significant role of building facade height and architectural elements in shaping the acoustic characteristics of outdoor spaces, providing valuable insights for designing acoustically comfortable urban environments, particularly in educational settings.

Application of Linear Mixed-Effects Model, Principal Component Analysis, and Clustering to Direct Energy Deposition Fabricated Parts Using FEM Simulation Data.

The purpose of this study is to investigate the effects of toolpath patterns, geometry types, and layering effects on the mechanical properties of parts manufactured by direct energy deposition (DED) additive manufacturing using data analysis and machine learning methods. A total of twelve case studies were conducted, involving four distinct geometries, each paired with three different toolpath patterns based on finite element method (FEM) simulations. These simulations focused on residual stresses, strains, and maximum principal stresses at various nodes. A comprehensive analysis was performed using a linear mixed-effects (LME) model, principal component analysis (PCA), and self-organizing map (SOM) clustering. The LME model quantified the contributions of geometry, toolpath, and layer number to mechanical properties, while PCA identified key variables with high variance. SOM clustering was used to classify the data, revealing patterns related to stress and strain distributions across different geometries and toolpaths. In conclusion, LME, PCA, and SOM offer valuable insights into the final mechanical properties of DED-fabricated parts.