Direct Rule Research Articles

Nano-Games for Cultural Venues: the HEAL game

Many are the times when visitors leave an exhibition without a clue about its message. In an effort to eliminate this phenomenon, museums, institutes and organisations (MIOs) adopt more attractive, engaging and fun content to provide a high quality and fast learning experience. Games seem to be an interesting suggestion to this approach but they are time consuming. To this end, we introduce nano-games. We define nano-games as short, easy to master, self–contained games of a single level of difficulty, having basic and direct rules that stay unaltered throughout the play and challenge players with clearly defined goals reachable within tens of seconds of gameplay. This approach has been adopted and evaluated in the premises of European Center for Nuclear Research (CERN).

Legal regulation of the state of emergency in the legislation of the Russian Empire

The article considers the history of legal regulation of the state of emergency in the Russian state, starting with the period of reign of Ivan the terrible to the reign of Nicholas II. It is shown that the General form of the input of such a regime was the introduction of the oprichnina, conscription, the creation of the militia, the imposition of additional taxes and imposition of duties of the population to strengthen the Fortezza, the supply of food and fodder. In the Russian Empire, control over the implementation of the emergency condition were assigned to governors, heads of police, and commanders of military units during hostilities. With the aim of systematizing a normative-legal acts adopted during this historical period, was divided into three stages: 1) nucleation (the reign of Ivan the terrible, Peter i); 2) formation (the period of reign of Alexander i, Nicholas i); 3) formation (during the reign of Alexander II, Alexander III and Nicholas II). The outset is characterized in that the first normative-legal acts in this sphere was adopted during the reign of Ivan IV the terrible in the middle of the XVI century. by the introduction of the oprichnina, which was a direct rule of Moscow Czar. The next step in the development of the history of the state of emergency was the rule of Peter i, who in February 20, 1705, issued a Decree against conscription, first in southern and later throughout the Empire. The period of the legislation regarding state of emergency began during the reign of Alexander i. The Governor has declared a state of emergency on the territories of hostilities between the French and the Russians on the basis of manifestos and a separate Imperial decrees. During the reign of Nicholas I the question of introducing a state of emergency was decided by the Emperor and control over the implementation of such legal acts darecasa the Third Department of His Imperial Majesty's Chancellery. The period of formation of bases of a state of emergency to the period of the reign of Alexander II. The development of legal regulation of the state of emergency significantly affected by the introduction in the Empire police reforms 60-70-ies of the XIX century. In the early twentieth century legal regulation of emergency has undergone significant changes. So in 1901, Nicholas II approved the «regulation on the control of fortresses», which established the responsibilities of tenants unquestionably carry out the orders of the military leadership. In the Russian Empire, a state of emergency was introduced during the military actions, mass demonstrations, strikes, terrorist acts, by granting exclusive powers to the governors-General, military and local authorities concerning the transfer of suspected persons to the military courts, attracting people to defence works, the collection of militias, expulsion of unreliable and suspicious persons to Siberia and the Far East. Key words: legal regime; state of emergency; legal act; oprichnina; mobilization; governors general; terrorism.

Recognizing Linear Building Patterns in Topographic Data by Using Two New Indices based on Delaunay Triangulation

Building pattern recognition is fundamental to a wide range of downstream applications, such as urban landscape evaluation, social analyses, and map generalization. Although many studies have been conducted, there is still a lack of satisfactory results, due to the imprecision of the relative direction model of any two adjacent buildings and the ineffective extraction methods. This study aims to provide an alternative for quantifying the direction and the spatial continuity of any two buildings on the basis of the Delaunay triangulation for the recognition of linear building patterns. First, constrained Delaunay triangulations (CDTs) are created for all buildings within each block and every two adjacent buildings. Then, the spatial continuity index (SCI), the direction index (DI), and other spatial relations (e.g., distance) of every two adjacent buildings are derived using the CDT. Finally, the building block is modelled as a graph based on derived matrices, and a graph segmentation approach is proposed to extract linear building patterns. In the segmentation process, the edges of the graph are removed first, according to the global thresholds of the SCI and distance, and are subsequently subdivided into subgraphs on direction rules. The proposed method is tested using three datasets. The experimental results suggest that the proposed method can recognize both collinear and curvilinear building patterns, given that the correctness values are all above 92% for the three study areas. The results also demonstrate that the novel SCI can effectively filter many insignificant neighbor relationships in the graph segmentation process. It is noteworthy that the proposed DI is capable of measuring building relative directions accurately and works efficiently in linear building pattern extraction.

SOME LEGISLATIVE STEPS TO INCREASE THE EFFICIENCY OF THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE CRIMINOLOGICAL POLICY OF THE STATE IN THE ACTIVITIES OF CERTAIN BODIES

The relevance of the article is that to obtain the status of mandatory for implementation, these conceptual provisions must be enshrined in the relevant regulations. Therefore, in order to increase the effectiveness of the criminological policy of the state in the activities of individual bodies of criminal justice, it is necessary to search for ways to improve the legislative mechanism of its implementation. The purpose of the article is to find legislative steps to improve the implementation of criminological policy of the state in the activities of individual bodies of criminal justice. Some legislative steps to increase the effectiveness of the implementation of criminological policy of the state in the activities of certain bodies of criminal justice. The search for legislative steps to increase the effectiveness of the implementation of criminological policy of the state in the activities of certain bodies of criminal justice. It is concluded that in the current CPC of Ukraine there are no direct rules authorizing the criminal justice authorities to prevent activities. First of all, it concerns the identification of the causes and conditions that contribute to the commission of criminal offenses and the taking of measures within their competence to eliminate them. That is, investigators and investigators have the power to identify and eliminate the causes and conditions of crime, according to the Law of Ukraine "On the National Police", and the mechanism for exercising this power, which should be contained in the CPC of Ukraine, is absent. To increase the effectiveness of the implementation of criminological policy of the state it is advisable, in particular: in Article 1, Part 2 of Article 9, para. 3 part 1 of Art. 22 of the Law of Ukraine "On the National Police" to replace the phrase "combating crime" with "crime prevention". In addition, in Article 2 of the same Law, one of the tasks of the police, instead of "combating crime", it is desirable to define "crime prevention"; The Law of Ukraine “On the Security Service of Ukraine” should be supplemented with guarantees regarding non-interference in the activities of SBU employees as follows: “Any written or oral instructions, requirements, instructions, etc. addressed to the Security Service of Ukraine or its employees proceedings and not provided for by the Criminal Procedure Code of Ukraine, are illegal and not enforceable. In case of receiving such instructions, requirements, instructions, etc., the employee of the Security Service of Ukraine shall immediately inform the head of the Security Service of Ukraine in writing".

VAT Quick Fixes Implementation in Germany – An Overview

The “quick fixes” for intra-Community trade in the European Union, adopted in 2018, have to be implemented by the Member States before 31 December 2019 so that they can become applicable as of 1 January 2020. In this article, the author describes the German approach taken for their implementation and focuses on important deviations from current practice and the rules of the VAT Directive.

Osvrt na regulativu saobraznosti i garancije u mađarskom pravu - primer transpozicije Direktive 1999/44/EZ u opšta pravila ugovornog prava

In 2002 Hungary transposed the Directive 1999/44/EC on certain aspects of sale of consumer goods and associated guarantees, by amending the Civil code of 1959, rather than integrating the rules of the Directive into the then-effective Law on the Protection of Consumers of 1997. Such an approach reveals some advantages if compared to the Serbian law. Namely, in Serbia the former Law on the Protection of Consumers of 2010 introduced special rules pertaining to conformity and guarantees in consumer sales contracts. Consequently, the need arose to limit their scope of application from the general rules of the Law on Obligations of 1978 on the conformity and guarantees. By the transposition of the rules of Directive into the Hungarian Civil code a unique set of rules on conformity and guarantees has been created that has a general scope of application. While they are applicable to all contracts, the number of special rules applicable only to consumer sales contract is in fact relatively small. Furthermore, Hungarian law provides an example of coordinated functioning of commercial and obligatory guarantees. Commercial guarantee is, like conformity, regulated uniformly in the Civil code, applicable to both consumer and non-consumer contracts. Apart from commercial guarantees, there are several obligatory guarantees in Hungarian law introduced by decrees of the government, whereby their scope of application is clear. In contrast, the legal nature and scope of application of guarantee under the Law on Obligations in Serbia became vague after the adoption of the former Law on the Protection of Consumers of 2010, which introduced commercial guarantees in consumer sale contracts. This is also one of the negative implications of the transposition of Directive 1999/44/EC into the Law on the Protection of Consumers, instead of incorporating them into the rules of general contract law. The main legislative approach adopted in the former Hungarian Civil Code has not been changed in the new Code from 2013 either: conformity and guarantee remain regulated by the general rules of contract law. Obligatory guarantees introduced by decrees of the government also remain in force. A significant novelty in the new Code is the introduction of a direct liability of the produced or consumer goods, a legislative possibility offered by Directive 1999/44/EC.

Continuity or Change? (In)direct Rule in British and French Colonial Africa

AbstractCurrent political order in Africa is often linked to legacies of colonialism, in particular to legacies of indirect colonial rule. However, evidence about the application of indirect rule is scarce. In this paper I argue that empire-level characteristics interacted with precolonial institutions in shaping the indirectness of local rule. First, British governments ruled more indirectly than French administrations, which followed a comparatively centralized administrative blueprint, came with a transformative republican ideology, and had more administrative resources. Empirically, I find that French colonization led to the demise of the lines of succession of seven out of ten precolonial polities, twice as many as under British rule. Second, precolonial centralization was a crucial prerequisite for indirect rule. Local administrative data from eight British colonies show that British colonizers employed less administrative effort and devolved more power to native authorities where centralized institutions existed. Such a pattern did not exist in French colonies. Together, these findings improve our understanding of the long-term effects of precolonial institutions and draw attention to the interaction of characteristics of dominant and subordinate units in shaping local governance arrangements.

DIRECTIONS OF MINIMIZATION OF FINANCIAL SCAMS IN THE FIELD OF PUBLIC PROCUREMENT

Introduction. Ukraine is undergoing an extremely important and complex process of forming a modern and effective public procurement system aimed at creating a competitive environment and further developing fair competition in public procurement, as well as ensuring compliance with international obligations by consistently adapting Ukrainian legislation to EU standards. The task of public procurement reform is to significantly reduce financial fraud in this area and achieve savings in public funds. The purpose of the article is to analyze the process of reforming the public procurement in Ukraine, focusing on the latest changes, substantiation of proposals for ways to minimize financial fraud in the field of public procurement. Results. The main milestones of formation and improvement of the public procurement system in Ukraine are considered. Emphasis is placed on the features of the current stage, which are to create better conditions for bidders and prevent financial fraud in public procurement, expanding the list of violations and strengthening penalties. Data on the most common types of violations among procurement customers are given. Conclusions. The existing risks of unfair competition in procurement are indicated and the ways of minimizing financial fraud in this area are substantiated. Emphasis is placed on the importance of preventive measures that can be used to detect violations before the conclusion of the contract. In the context of strengthening the effectiveness of control measures, it is proposed to introduce a direct rule of criminal liability for violations in the field of public procurement. The implementation of the proposed measures will help increase the effectiveness of public policy in the field of public procurement, which will ultimately allow for more economical and efficient use of public funds.

조선초기 호장(戶長)의 향촌 지배와 그 변화

This study reviewed the fundamental change in the local headmen’s (hojang, 戶長) control over rural villages in the early Joseon Dynasty, based on the movements of the local headman class in late Koryo and the government policy towards the headmen. The headmen, who had ruled over rural villages as the leaders of the households in each district as well as the heads of local functionaries (鄕吏) since the early Koryo dynasty, strived to maintain and restore their positions as the ruling class against the government policy, which aimed to exclude the local functionaries from the ruling class in the late Koryo and early Joseon dynasty, largely in two ways. First, the local headmen would bribe for public posts and remain in the local villages with the status of yuhyang pumgwan (留鄕品官). Second, the headmen would retain their position as the leaders of the households but also became ajeon (‘衙前’), that is, the local civil functionaries who work in government offices of each district, so that they could wield influence over the rural communities.BR There was little difference in the local headmen’s rule of the rural communities in the early Joseon dynasty with that in the Koryo dynasty, in that the headmen handled official business by using official seals at each local office (‘邑司’). However, unlike in the early Koryo dynasty when the local (鄕) communities had been accepted or overlooked as being independently ruled by the local headmen who served as local functionaries, the local communities in the early Joseon dynasty were declared to be outer provinces under direct rule of the regional district offices. As a result, the headmen’s rule over the local communities in early Joseon went through a fundamental change, as the headmen had to rely on the authority of the local district magistrates in a large part. This became especially the case in 1445, the 27th year of King Sejong, when the assigned land to the local functionaries and the land for official expenses in each district went through reform; the functionary duty was placed on the local headmen and their material resource for running the local offices were also taken away.BR The local headmen, who were unable to take independent control over local districts as the land, their material resources, and jeong (正) and sa (史), their human resources, were subjected under the control of the regional district offices and became civil functionaries so as to maintain their status, authority and influence. This was a gradual change, as the local headmen’s control over the local communities, which was based on the noninstitutionalized local power and traditional authority, was gradually replaced with the rule of the local district magistrates who represented the institutionalized state authority. This process took place in the context of the local control policy implemented by the central government in the early Joseon dynasty, and signified the centralization of power in the medieval state of Joseon.

Instytucja referendum w Republice Tatarstanu (Federacja Rosyjska)

<p>Republika Tatarstanu jest jednym z 85 podmiotów Federacji Rosyjskiej wymienionych w Konstytucji Federacji Rosyjskiej (w tym Republiki Krymu i Sewastopola). Wobec innych podmiotów Republika Tatarstanu wyróżnia się liczbą zorganizowanych referendów. W Republice Tatarstanu w 1992 r. przeprowadzono referendum w celu określenia statusu republiki, a następnie ogłoszenia niepodległości. Jednak w związku ze zmianą polityki władz rosyjskich, polegającej na odrzuceniu wsparcia dla separatyzmów na rzecz konsolidacji państwa, Republika Tatarstanu nigdy nie została uznana za niezależny i suwerenny podmiot. Pomimo to Tatarom udało się znacząco zmienić swoją pozycję w celu zwiększenia niezależności finansowej i ekonomicznej. Było to możliwe, ponieważ wykorzystano głosowanie referendalne, a jego wynik legitymizował dążenia władz Tatarstanu. Ponadto warto podkreślić niezwykle częste praktykowane głosowania referendalne na szczeblu lokalnym. W związku z powyższym w artykule określono status prawny instytucji referendum w Republice Tatarstanu w świetle systemu prawnego Federacji Rosyjskiej oraz dokonano analizy zastosowania referendum na poziomie republiki i lokalnym na wybranych przykładach. Regulacje prawne są niemal identyczne z rozwiązaniami federalnymi. Po 1992 r. na poziomie republiki, instytucja referendum nie była już wykorzystywana, natomiast na szczeblu lokalnym była bardzo często stosowana i dotyczyła głównie dodatkowego opodatkowania obywateli na zadania lokalne.</p>

Military Women and the Force of the Future

ABSTRACTWomen are one of the fastest growing segments of the U.S .military population. Since the U.S. Department of Defense rescinded ‘Direct Ground Combat Definition and Assignment Rule,’ and implemented the 2016 policy to allow women into combat arms, the next time the United States goes to war, women will be at the battle forefront. This special issue of Defence and Peace Economics (DPE) explores the implication of the directive on the demand and supply of military labor and possible substitution and complementarity within military occupational classifications in response to the directive. The three papers highlighted in this special issue approach the status of women in the forces from three different aspects, integration, health, and education.

Power, Politics, and Community: Resistance Dynamics in the Occupied Golan

In 1967, Israel occupied the western section of Syria's Golan Heights, expelling some 130,000 of its inhabitants and leaving a few thousand people scattered across five villages. Severed from Syria, this residual and mostly Druze community, known as the Jawlanis, has been subjected to systematic policies of ethno-religious identity reformulation and bureaucratic and economic control by the Israeli regime for half a century. This essay offers an account of the transformation of authority, class, and the politics of representation among what is now the near 25,000-strong Jawlani community, detailing the impact of Israeli occupation both politically and economically. During an initial decade and a half of direct military rule, Israel secured the community's political docility by restoring traditional leaders to power; but following full-on annexation in 1981, new forces emerged from the popular resistance movement that developed in response. Those forces continue to compete for social influence and representation today.

Populism and Democratic Theory

Commentators routinely describe “populism” as vague. Some argue that the early US populists, who coined the modern usage, were not populists. We disagree and identify this common conceptual core: the “people” in a moral battle against “elites.” The core definition fits all cases of populism: those on the left and right, those in the United States, Europe, and elsewhere. In addition to this minimal common core, we identify strongly suggested and frequently correlated non-core characteristics. These include the people's homogeneity and exclusivity, direct rule, and nationalism, as well as a single leader, vilification of vulnerable out-groups, and impatience with deliberation. The US Populist Party and Spain's Podemos Party fit the core definition but have few of the other characteristics. The core can be good for democracy, we argue, while the associated characteristics are often dangerous. Populism in opposition can be good for democracy, while populism in power carries great risks.

Effect of autumn nitrogen fertilization on winter oilseed rape growth and yield parameters

Autumn fertilization of winter oilseed rape with nitrogen was monitored in exactly delimited small field experiment in the period of 2013/14–2015/16. The cultivar used was DK Exstorm, sowing amount: 50 seeds/m<sup>2</sup> and fertilizer applied in autumn was Ureastabil – granulated urea with urease inhibitor (NBPT). The application period was at the end of October, doses 40 and 80 kg N/ha. Research results confirmed a statistically important effect of autumn fertilization on growth of the above-ground biomass and roots. Statistically important effect on seed yield was confirmed, too. The dose of 40 kg N/ha resulted in the highest seed yield, on average by 10.6% higher than reference (5.7–6.5 t/ha). On the other hand, the dose of 80 kg N/ha increased the seed yield only by 7.4% on average (5.4–6.3 t/ha).Fertilization effects on the oil content and one thousand seeds’ weight were statistically insignificant. The results show that considering the given local and weather conditions and low mineral nitrogen content in the soil, the most suitable nitrogen dose for autumn fertilization is 40 kg N/ha. This dose follows the nitrate directive rules, supports oilseed rape strengthening before winter and intensifies it for better seed yield.

Mission to Civilize:The French West African Federation

Imperial powers like the Roman, Persian, Japanese, and Chinese, have always justified their conquests as a benefit to those that were conquered by virtue of bringing a superior civilization to their world. Among imperial powers one of the most strident were the Second and Third French Republics. The civilizing mission or what Girardet Raoul refers to as “colonial humanism” came to define French colonial statecraft in the early part of the nineteenth century crusade to improve the lives of people that France saw as backward in Asia, Africa, and the Pacific. For intellectuals like Leroy-Beaulieu, civilization was to be spread through commerce, trade and exchanges between peoples instead of through conquest. By the early 1800s, the republican ideals that inspired the French Revolution had been slowly abandoned for a more forceful assimilationist policy exemplified by colonial expansionist policies. In the words of Governor Jules Brevie, the most important task for the French was to bring about “cultural renaissance” to the indigenous people. Brevie – the governor-general of French West Africa from 1930–1936, and of French Indochina from 1936–1939 – called for a redefined mission with a focus on teaching colonized subjects to live according to “authentic African traditions.” As with the British before them, French policy was adapting to local context and shifting towards a more “indirect mode of rule,” casting the foreign rule as the protectors of indigenous cultures. In this article, I set out to analyze the French imperial project in Africa with a focus on the Federation of French West Africa (consisting of today’s Benin, Burkina Faso, Ivory Coast, Guinea, Mali, Mauritania, Niger and Senegal). I outline the contour of the colonial project, discussing the differences and similarities between the French mode of direct rule with the British preferred mode of indirect rule, arguing that in order to understand the methodology of rule, one must first understand the system of knowledge production that informed, shaped, and guided the colonial project. I will further show that a policy change occurred after the French experienced a crisis of empire. The new policy shifted focus from antagonism towards Islam to collaboration with Islamic representatives, from civilization to conservation, from a focus on progress to law and order, and a preoccupation with local custom while managing social and cultural differences (pluralism). I will attempt to make an important contribution to the political and intellectual history of the largest colonial state in Africa, the French West African Federation.

Weak Ties in a Tangled Web? Relationships between the Political Residents of the English East India Company and their munshis, 1798–1818

AbstractAlthough historians have long recognized the important role that Indians played in the English East India Company's operations, the focus has usually been on the mechanics of direct rule in ‘British’ India. Yet, the expertise of Indian cultural intermediaries was arguably even more important, as well as more contested, in the context of the Company's growing political influence over nominally independent Indian kingdoms. This article examines the relationships between the East India Company's political representatives (Residents) and their Indian secretaries (munshis) at Indian royal courts during a period of dramatic imperial expansion, from 1798 to 1818. The article considers how these relationships were conceptualized and debated by British officials, and reflects on the practical consequences of these relationships for the munshis involved. The tensions surrounding the role of the munshi in Residency business exemplify some of the practical dilemmas posed by the developing system of indirect rule in India, where the Resident had to decide how much responsibility to delegate to Indian experts better versed in courtly norms and practices, while at the same time maintaining his own image of authority and control. Although the Resident–munshi relationship was in many respects mutually beneficial, these relationships nevertheless spawned anxieties about transparency and accountability within the Company itself, as well as exciting resentments at court. Both Residents and munshis were required to negotiate between two political and institutional cultures, but it was the munshi who seems to have borne the brunt of the risks associated with this intermediary position.

Pontius Pilate in Jerusalem: The Monumental Street from the Siloam Pool to the Temple Mount

For over a century and a half, excavations in Jerusalem have been uncovering segments of the city’s Early Roman period network of streets, particularly the street that wended its way from the southernmost gate of the city, alongside the Siloam Pool and towards the Temple Mount. The importance of this street is evident from its dimensions as well as from the quality of its construction, which undoubtedly required an expansive workforce that included skilled labourers and craftsmen. Based on archaeological and historical data, the creation of the street has variously been attributed to some time in the Herodian period, to the reign of Herod and to the days of Herod Agrippa II. Here, based on numismatic evidence, we propose a more precise timeframe. We suggest that the street was constructed in the 1st century CE, in the middle of the first period of direct Roman rule, specifically during Pontius Pilate’s tenure as governor of the newly named province of Judea. We bolster this claim with a discussion of Pilate’s mandate and goals as provincial governor.

Religion as Resistance: Negotiating Authority in Italian Libya

Religion as Resistance: Negotiating Authority in Italian Libya

MECHANICAL MODELING AND EXPERIMENTAL VALIDATION ON PIEZOCERAMIC BASED ON THE SURFACE-BONDED PZT SENSOR

This paper proposes the modified mechanical and mathematical modeling of lead zirconium titanate (PZT) sensor based on the PZT constitutive relation in order to solve the complicated boundary condition and stress situation of PZT sensor due to the effect of adhesive-layer damping. The experimental study on the surface-bonded PZT sensor is chosen to carry out the correctness of the proposed models. The results show that the PZT sensor modeling is simplified to three types. When the amplitude of harmonic force is constant, the greater the excitation frequency, the more sensitive the output voltage is, the easier the signal acquisition is. At a certain frequency, the voltage output is proportional to the force amplitude. The larger the area or thickness of PZT, the greater the output voltage is, the more sensitive the signal output is. The output voltage is in quadratic relation to the bonding thickness. Furthermore, the smaller the output voltage, the greater the damping is. The signal loss is about 25.82%. The signal acquisition effect of the PZT square wafer is better than that of circular wafer under the same area of PZT sensor. The research achievements reveal the sensing mechanisms and validate the efficiency of the developed model and effectively simulate and detect direct piezoelectric rule of PZT sensor.

Informal empire and international law in Tunisia after the French Revolution

ABSTRACTThe French Revolution has often been described as the beginning of a new era of French imperialism, when France began nesting its imperial endeavours around the Mediterranean and recovering from the colonial losses it had incurred around the Atlantic during the Seven Years’ War (1756–1763). The existing literature largely considers this general shift from the Atlantic to the Mediterranean from the perspective of formal imperialism, or the imposition of direct French rule. This article argues that consular imperialism, as an informal imperial strategy unsupported by a direct use of military force, emerged in Tunisia between 1789 and 1815, before the rise of formal imperialism and the establishment of a French protectorate there in 1881. Moreover, in contrast to the economic integration that underpinned the British form of informal imperialism, which led to the establishment of a global market, French diplomats relied on rumoured threats of a possible Napoleonic invasion in their attempts to force Ḥammūda Pasha, the Tunisian bey, to accept a new system of international law in the Mediterranean. Through this legal integration, French diplomats succeeded in remoulding Tunisia into an informal appendage of the growing French Mediterranean Empire during the height of Napoleonic expansion, when the threat of an invasion appeared credible. This study thus shows that an extended focus on informal methods of projecting power through the spread of international legal norms could throw new light on the longue durée factors that framed the realignment of French imperial ambitions around the Mediterranean after 1789.