Direct Deposition Research Articles

Microstructure and mechanical properties of laminated ferrous medium-entropy alloys fabricated by direct energy deposition and post-rolling annealing treatment

Laminated ferrous medium entropy alloy (Fe-MEAs), Fe75(CoCrNi)25/Fe60(CoCrNi)40, was successfully fabricated by direct energy deposition (DED). Due to the component mixing during DED process, a transition layer with face-centered cubic (FCC) and body-centered cubic (BCC) dual-phase was obtained in the Fe60(CoCrNi)40 layer after rolling and annealing. This dual-phase exhibits higher strength compared to a single FCC phase, thereby enhancing the overall strength of the material. During the deformation process of the laminated material, interface constraint will lead to high yield strength, resulting in performance superior to that predicted by the rule of mixtures. Moreover, the transition layer plays an important role in strain transferring and shows greater strain-hardening ability than the other two layers, enhancing the overall ductility of the laminated alloy.

High density nanofluidic channels by self-sealing for metallic nanoparticles detection

High density nanofluidic channels were successfully fabricated by a novel process, nicknamed as self-sealing process, for the detection of metal nanoparticles dispersed in water using color changes excited by polarized electromagnetic waves. The permittivities of aqueous solutions with various concentrations of metal nanoparticles were calculated by a corrected plasma model. Systematic simulations using finite difference time domain method were carried out in investigating the detection capabilities of the nanofluidic channels for silver, beryllium and copper nanoparticles in water. The pronounced color shifts indicates that the channels possess high sensitivity in the metal nanoparticles detection. The designed nanofluidic channels were then fabricated by a direct flood deposition of a silica film on a pre-replicated hydrogen silsesquioxan (HSQ) grating using electron beam lithography (EBL). The self-sealing technique possesses advantages in simplified processing, encapsulation free and potential of multi-layer nanochannels.

Low Temperature Plasma-Assisted Double Anodic Dissolution: A New Approach for the Synthesis of GdFeO3 Perovskite Nanoparticles.

Orthorhombic perovskite GdFeO3 nanostructures are promising materials with multiferroic properties. In this study, a new low-temperature plasma-assisted approach is developed via dual anodic dissolution of solid metallic precursors for the preparation of perovskite GdFeO3 nanoparticles (NPs) that can be collected both as colloids as well as deposited as a thin film on a substrate. Two solid metallic foils of Gd and Fe are used as precursors, adding to the simplicity and sustainability of the method. The formation of the orthorhombic perovskite GdFeO3 phase is supported by high-resolution transmission electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, and Raman measurements, while a uniform elemental distribution of Gd, Fe, and O is confirmed by energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy, proving the successful preparation of ternary compound NPs. The magnetic properties of the NPs show zero remnant magnetization typical of antiferromagnetic materials, and saturation at high fields that can be caused by spin interaction between Gd and Fe magnetic sublattices. The formation mechanism of ternary compound NPs in this novel plasma-assisted method is also discussed. This method is also modified to demonstrate the direct one-step deposition of thin films, opening up opportunities for their future applications in the fabrication of magnetic memory devices and gas sensors.

Omniphobic Photoresist‐Assisted Patterning of Porous Polymethacrylate Films

AbstractPatterning of various surface properties, including roughness, wettability, adhesiveness, and mechanical properties, can markedly enhance the functionality of test systems. Thus, porous polymethacrylates prepared by polymerization‐induced phase separation (PIPS) represent a promising class of functional materials for the construction of miniaturized test systems. Different porosity, surface chemistry, and wettability are achieved in porous polymethacrylates with different precursor compositions. Nevertheless, only wettability microstructuring has been highlighted for these materials thus far. Here, the study presents a novel method for the direct and selective deposition of porous polymethacrylate films with different surface chemistry and porosity. The selective adhesion of omniphobic–omniphilic wettability patterns is used to facilitate the polymer pattern formation. The feasibility of patterning with different monomers and porogenic solvents is demonstrated. The topological study confirms the selective application of polymer structures with different thickness and roughness. The wettability characterization of the omniphobic material shows no significant changes caused by the operations performed. Thus, a new pattern with a greater difference in the wettability of the areas is produced in the process. Discontinuous dewetting of different liquids is performed. The use of poly(2‐hydroxyethyl methacrylate‐co‐ethylene dimethacrylate) (HEMA‐EDMA) modified patterns for precise living cell patterning is also demonstrated.

High-throughput screening of MoNbTaW-based Refractory High-Entropy Alloys through Direct Energy Deposition in-situ alloying

Refractory High-Entropy Alloys (RHEAs) have been presented as attractive materials for high-temperature applications, such as combustion engines for the aerospace sector, due to the possible service temperature increase, which can result in superior yield of the combustion itself. This work presents the combination of CALPHAD simulations with the in-situ alloying of the MoNbTaW system by Direct Energy Deposition (DED) for a high-throughput screening of RHEAs. CALPHAD simulations show that the addition of V and Ti allows a single-phase BCC structure to be kept. For the DED setup available, MoNbTaW single-track deposits were optimised through Response Surface Methodology. Afterwards, in-situ alloying with V was conducted. Microstructural characterisation was assessed at room temperature through SEM/EDS, and the mechanical characterisation was performed at room temperature (RT), 350 °C and 700 °C, through nanoindentation tests. The microstructural characterisation shows that alloying up to 40 at.% V to the base system allows to keep a single-phase structure; however, some segregations are observed. Mechanical characterisation revealed that V alloying of 22 % promotes a 93 % increase in hardness at RT and a 150 % increase at 700 °C. This study contributes to increasing the practical knowledge of RHEAs, thus accelerating the application of these alloys in aerospace applications.

Regulation of microstructure, phase transformation behavior, and enhanced high superelastic cycling stability in laser direct energy deposition NiTi shape memory alloys via aging treatment

The remarkable mechanical properties, fatigue resistance, wear and corrosion resistance, biocompatibility, shape memory effect, and superelasticity of NiTi shape memory alloys make them applied in diverse engineering areas, including satellite antennas, oil pipelines, and vascular stents. This paper focuses on the preparation of Ni50.8Ti49.2 alloy via laser directed energy deposition (LDED) utilizing pre-alloyed powder and the heat treatment of solid solution at 950 °C for 8 h followed by subsequent aging at 350 °C, 450 °C and 550 °C for 2 h. The influence of varying aging temperature on the microstructures, phase transformation behavior and superelastic cyclic stability of them was comprehensively summarized and discussed. The martensitic transformation temperatures of NiTi alloys after aging decrease as the aging temperature increases. Specifically, NiTi alloys aged at 450 °C for 2 h exhibit excellent superelasticity and high cyclic stability. After an initial loading-unloading cycle with an 8.079 % pre-strain, the alloy achieves 100 % complete recovery. Even after 10 cycles, the recoverable strain remains at approximately 7.374 %, with a recovery rate exceeding 90 %. These outstanding properties of high superelasticity and superior cyclic stability are significantly better than most other LDED NiTi alloys. This exceptional performance is primarily attributed to the synergistic effects of the R-phase and Ti3Ni4 precipitates on the shape memory alloy.

Research on Process Control of Laser-Based Direct Energy Deposition Based on Real-Time Monitoring of Molten Pool

In the process of laser-based direct energy deposition (DED-LB), the quality of the deposited layer will be affected by the process parameters and the external environment, and there are problems such as poor stability and low accuracy. A molten pool monitoring method based on coaxial vision is proposed. Firstly, the molten pool image is captured by a coaxial CCD camera, and the geometric features of the molten pool are accurately extracted by image processing techniques such as grayscale, median filtering noise reduction, and K-means clustering combined with threshold segmentation. The molten pool width is accurately extracted by the Canny operator combined with the minimum boundary rectangle method, and it is used as the feedback of weld pool control. The influence of process parameters on the molten pool was further analyzed. The results show that with an increase in laser power, the width and area of the molten pool increase monotonously, but exceeding the material limit will cause distortion. Increasing the scanning speed will reduce the size of the molten pool. By comparing the molten pool under constant power mode and width control mode, it is found that in width control mode, the melt pool width fluctuates less, and the machining accuracy is improved, validating the effectiveness of the real-time control system.

A Robust Recurrent Neural Networks-Based Surrogate Model for Thermal History and Melt Pool Characteristics in Directed Energy Deposition.

In directed energy deposition (DED), accurately controlling and predicting melt pool characteristics is essential for ensuring desired material qualities and geometric accuracies. This paper introduces a robust surrogate model based on recurrent neural network (RNN) architectures-Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM), Bidirectional LSTM (Bi-LSTM), and Gated Recurrent Unit (GRU). Leveraging a time series dataset from multi-physics simulations and a three-factor, three-level experimental design, the model accurately predicts melt pool peak temperatures, lengths, widths, and depths under varying conditions. RNN algorithms, particularly Bi-LSTM, demonstrate high predictive accuracy, with an R-square of 0.983 for melt pool peak temperatures. For melt pool geometry, the GRU-based model excels, achieving R-square values above 0.88 and reducing computation time by at least 29%, showcasing its accuracy and efficiency. The RNN-based surrogate model built in this research enhances understanding of melt pool dynamics and supports precise DED system setups.

Microstructural and mechanical properties of Al-5356 alloy structures fabricated using direct energy deposition (DED): In-pursuit to optimizing deposition parameters

Many industries including aerospace make extensive use of lightweight materials like aluminium alloys because of their extraordinary properties. Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing-Cold Metal Transfer (WAAM-CMT) as a part of modern direct energy deposition technique can be recommended for developing aerospace components of aluminium alloys. However, it is still necessary to investigate the impact of the combined change of developing parameters on some of the crucial qualities including metallurgical and mechanical properties. Therefore, in this part of research work, practically, various process parameters were tried for development of aluminium (Al-5356) alloy walls. Finaly, a specific set of parameters namely wire feed speed, scanning speed and inter layer temperature parameters with two levels of each were selected and with the assistance of these, four walls have been fabricated. Th preliminary analysis showed that low heat input accompanied by higher scanning speed of 60 cm/min and lower wire feed rate of 6 m/min was found to best suitable set of parameters for developing dimensionally stable Al wall with flaw less microstructure. The said set of parameters also showed higher hardness that also accompanied with finer grains, lower percentage towards high angle grain boundary and lower KAM. Even slight variation in these parameters that deal to high heat input can give rise of porosity and misalignment in the wall. Details of microhardness reported high hardness in the bottom part of the wall. However, in a single bead the hardness is higher in the top region, which may be owing to finer grains in the specified region. The above said set of parameters also able to deliver better tensile strength and toughness for Al-5356 alloy. The developed alloy showed improved strength in longitudinal orientation owing to intra layer failure with ductile mode of fracture in contrast to transverse orientation, where the failure mode was reported to mixed (ductile as well as brittle) owing to inter layer fracture.

Effect of scanning speeds on microstructure evolution and properties of 70Cr8Ni2Y coatings by direct laser deposition

Abstract The 70Cr8Ni2Y coatings were prepared by direct laser deposition (DLD) with different scanning speeds. The microstructure evolution and the relationship between microstructure and properties of the coatings were studied. The results demonstrated that the microstructure of DLD 70Cr8Ni2Y coatings was martensite, and the phases were α′ (Fe-Cr) and γ-Fe (Fe-Ni). With the increased of scanning speed, the martensite size decreased from 5.42 ± 0.04 μm to 4.42 ± 0.01 μm and 3.20 ± 0.02 μm. When the scanning speed was 20 mm s−1, the fabricated coating displayed the highest average microhardness (883 ± 37 HV) and the lowest mass wear rate (0.061 mg mm−1) without pores. The combined strengthening effect of fine grain strengthening and solid solution strengthening, as well as good formability, were the fundamental reasons for the high hardness and wear resistance of the coating. The results of this study can provide an experimental basis for the DLD alloy coatings with high hardness and wear resistance.

Additive manufacturing of a new titanium alloy with tunable microstructure and isotropic properties

Conventional titanium alloys have a high propensity in developing columnar grains with strong textures during additive manufacturing (AM), which causes pronounced anisotropy in mechanical properties and hampers their practical applications. In this study, a new metastable β titanium alloy with high Fe addition (Ti-3Al-6Fe-6V-2Zr, wt.%) was designed for AM, and the strategies and underlying mechanisms to eliminating the structural heterogeneity including grain morphology, Fe element segregation and phase constituent distribution were elaborately investigated. It was demonstrated that the alloy has an outstanding intrinsic capability of forming equiaxed grains during direct energy deposition (DED) due to the positive effect of Fe on constitutional supercooling. The final microstructure of bulk sample was determined by the directly deposited microstructure and subsequent microstructure coarsening caused by cyclic heating, and homogeneously equiaxed microstructure without texture could be achieved when the heat-affected zones can fully cover the formerly deposited layer. Despite of very high level of Fe addition, both microscale and macroscale Fe segregation were completely suppressed during DED, by taking the advantages of fast solidification rate and tailoring the heating effect between the adjacent layers. Moreover, the problem related to the heterogeneity in α phase distribution along the building direction was solved by mitigating the heat accumulation during DED. On the basis of these understandings, homogeneously equiaxed Ti3662 alloy with isotropic mechanical properties of high strength (~1200MPa) and decent ductility (~10%) was finally fabricated by DED, which stands a good chance for practical application. This study demonstrates that the special metallurgical process during AM largely expands the design space of titanium alloys on the aspects of composition and microstructure, which can be utilized to fabricate titanium alloys with desirable microstructure and excellent properties.

Prevalence of perturbed gut microbiota in pathophysiology of arsenic-induced anxiety- and depression-like behaviour in mice

Severe toxic effects of arsenic on human physiology have been of immense concern worldwide. Arsenic causes irrevocable structural and functional disruption of tissues, leading to major diseases in chronically exposed individuals. However, it is yet to be resolved whether the effects result from direct deposition and persistence of arsenic in tissues, or via activation of indirect signaling components. Emerging evidences suggest that gut inhabitants play an active role in orchestrating various aspects of brain physiology, as the gut-brain axis maintains cognitive health, emotions, learning and memory skills. Arsenic-induced dysbiosis may consequentially evoke neurotoxicity, eventually leading to anxiety and depression. To delineate the mechanism of action, mice were exposed to different concentrations of arsenic. Enrichment of Gram-negative bacteria and compromised barrier integrity of the gut enhanced lipopolysaccharide (LPS) level in the bloodstream, which in turn elicited systemic inflammation. Subsequent alterations in neurotransmitter levels, microglial activation and histoarchitectural disruption in brain triggered onset of anxiety- and depression-like behaviour in a dose-dependent manner. Finally, to confirm whether the neurotoxic effects are specifically a consequence of modulation of gut microbiota (GM) by arsenic and not arsenic accumulation in the brain, fecal microbiota transplantations (FMT) were performed from arsenic-exposed mice to healthy recipients. 16S rRNA gene sequencing indicated major alterations in GM population in FMT mice, leading to severe structural, functional and behavioural alterations. Moreover, suppression of Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) using vivo-morpholino oligomers (VMO) indicated restoration of the altered parameters towards normalcy in FMT mice, confirming direct involvement of the GM in inducing neurotoxicity through the arsenic-gut-brain axis. This study accentuates the potential role of the gut microbiota in promoting neurotoxicity in arsenic-exposed mice, and has immense relevance in predicting neurotoxicity under altered conditions of the gut for designing therapeutic interventions that will target gut dysbiosis to attenuate arsenic-mediated neurotoxicity.

Spinning-additive hybrid manufacturing of Al-Zn-Mg-Cu alloys: Microstructure evaluation and mechanical properties

This study employs wire-arc direct energy deposition (wire-arc DED) to produce high-strength aluminum alloys on the spinning matrix. Spinning-additive hybrid manufacturing specimens were produced. The evolution mechanism of the interfacial microstructure and fracture behavior of the hybrid manufacturing (HM) specimens was analyzed. The results indicate that the microstructure morphology can be divided into three regions: the spinning zone (SZ), columnar grain (CG) zone of additive manufacturing (AM), and equiaxed grain (EG) zone of AM. The SZ exhibits a bimodal grain structure, while the AM-CG zone consists of epitaxial growth from the SZ, and the AM-EG zone comprises equiaxed grains. Due to the influence of the hot spinning process, a large amount of eutectic structure and η phase coexist in the spinning matrix, resulted in a small amount of undissolved η phase remaining in the spinning matrix after heat treatment. A small amount of η' phase was generated in the AM zone at as-deposited state, due to the effect of in situ thermal cycling of the subsequent additive manufacturing process. Nearly all of η phase which dissolves into the α-Al matrix after heat treatment. The tensile strength of the hybrid manufactured samples increased from 256 MPa in the as-deposited state to 528 MPa after heat treatment. The fine-grained region of the spinning matrix experiences deformation and crack propagation initially, attributed to the softer properties of the fine-grained region within the bimodal grain structure of the SZ matrix, ultimately resulting in fracture at the SZ in all hybrid manufactured specimens.

Evaluating Ti-6Al-4V for Laser Direct Energy Deposition: Insights from Powder Metallurgy Techniques

Laser Direct Energy Deposition (LDED) is a highly precise additive manufacturing technique that enables the creation and repair of complex metal components by melting and depositing metal powders. This study comprehensively evaluates Ti-6Al4V alloy within the LDED framework, highlighting its performance relative to other metals such as stainless steel, Inconel, and aluminum alloys. Ti-6Al-4V, a titanium-based alloy known for its exceptional strength-to-weight ratio, fatigue resistance, and corrosion resistance, is scrutinized for its advantages and limitations in the LDED process. The research includes a detailed comparison of mechanical properties, thermal behavior, and cost-effectiveness of Ti-6Al-4V against other common LDED metals. Additionally, the study explores the impact of powder metallurgy techniques on the deposition quality and performance of Ti-6Al-4V, focusing on aspects such as powder production methods, particle size distribution, and alloying effects. Real-world applications and case studies from industries including aerospace, automotive, and medical engineering are examined to illustrate the practical advantages of Ti-6Al-4V. The paper concludes by identifying key challenges and opportunities associated with Ti-6Al-4V in LDED and offering recommendations for future research and practical applications. This comprehensive evaluation aims to enhance understanding of Ti-6Al-4V's role in LDED and guide its optimized use in advanced manufacturing contexts

Digital bead modeling for wire-arc directed energy deposition

Prediction of 2D cross-section and full 3D geometry for stacked weld beads is critical for the outcome of wire-arc directed energy deposition (DED) parts; however, most additive path planning software packages model beads as extrusions of a rectangle. Weld beads are not rectangular, and the resulting shape is dependent upon physics effects at the moment of deposition. Physics phenomena such as the geometry of the underlying surface, the heat input of the welding mode, and the direction of gravity contribute to bead shape. This paper presents a novel implicit modeling method that discretizes a 2D area or 3D volume of space into pixels or voxels and constructs fields based on these physics phenomena. The fields are combined using a weighting scheme trained on 3D scan measurements of welds and wire-arc DED prints. Pixels or voxels are added until the known amount of deposited volume has been achieved. Thereby, a strong conservation of mass principle is applied to the process. Utilizing machine learning techniques, the present model can be trained on a database of scans allowing for the representation of a wide variety of prints. Results show that this method can produce predictions with realistic bead morphology and sub-millimeter form error.

Revealing the evolution of microstructure and mechanical properties with deposition energy and shielding gas to achieve phase-balanced directed energy deposition of 2205 duplex stainless steel

Directed energy deposition-arc (DED-arc) manufactured duplex stainless steel (DSS) has shown great potential for use in marine propellers. However, challenges remain in achieving phase-balanced DSS deposits through the DED-arc process. To overcome this, we conducted a study that involved regulating the deposition energy and shielding gas with the use of ER2205 wire. The results show that the austenite content in DSS deposits increases with the increase of deposition energy, and the content in the Ar+2%N2-protected deposits is significantly higher than that of Ar+2%CO2-protected deposits. Ultimately, DSS deposits with balanced phase content (austenite content of ∼48.4 %) are obtained at a line energy of 600 J/mm for DED-arc under Ar+2%N2 protection. Unlike the N loss in Ar+2%CO2-protected samples, more nitrogen elements are introduced into the DSS samples by Ar+2%N2 shielding gas. Ar+2%N2-protected samples contain more austenite and exhibit a more homogeneous microstructure, which results in the solid solution strengthening and a significant reduction in the anisotropy of the tensile properties. Furthermore, a more systematic evolution of the microstructure and tensile properties of DSS deposits under the influence of deposition energy and shielding gas is revealed. This study preliminarily obtains the relationship between the DED-arc parameters, microstructure, and tensile properties of DED-arc-fabricated DSS, which will provide an important reference for tailoring microstructure and properties in additive-manufactured DSS.

Microstructural Effects on the Mechanical Properties of Ti-6Al-4V Fabricated by Direct Energy Deposition

Microstructural Effects on the Mechanical Properties of Ti-6Al-4V Fabricated by Direct Energy Deposition

Effect of ultrasonic micro-forging on the microstructure and properties of GH4169 superalloy deposited by laser direct energy deposition

Nickel-based superalloys prepared by laser direct energy deposition (DED) still suffer from microstructure, elemental segregation, and unstable strength, which cannot meet the service requirements and severely limit the application and development of DED-prepared superalloy parts. In this paper, GH4169 specimens with high density and free of defects were prepared by ultrasonic micro-forging assisted laser direct energy deposition (UMT-DED) method. The effects of UMT on the dendritic structure, elemental segregation, and precipitation phases of the alloys prepared by UMT-DED, as well as the densities, hardness, and tensile properties at room and high temperatures were investigated. The contribution of the strengthening mechanism to the yield strength was estimated. The grain refinement mechanism and the deformation mechanism of the Laves phase in GH4169 were discussed. The results show that UMT achieves grain refinement by forming fine crystal strips between the layers. The proportion of fine grain areas increased from 5.9 % to 33.3 %. The plastic deformation introduced by UMT provides external work for dislocation movement to break and fracture part of the Laves phase during plastic deformation, with dislocation cutting of the Laves phase being the main deformation mechanism. The residual stresses was transformed into residual compressive stress. The tensile strength, yield strength, and elongation of the specimens at 25 °C were increased by 4.23 %, 6.42 %, and 23.67 % respectively.

Manufacturing of Ni-Co-Fe-Cr-Al-Ti High-Entropy Alloy Using Directed Energy Deposition and Evaluation of Its Microstructure, Tensile Strength, and Microhardness.

High-entropy alloys (HEAs) have drawn significant attention due to their unique design and superior mechanical properties. Comprising 5-35 at% of five or more elements with similar atomic radii, HEAs exhibit high configurational entropy, resulting in single-phase solid solutions rather than intermetallic compounds. Additive manufacturing (AM), particularly direct energy deposition (DED), is effective for producing HEAs due to its rapid cooling rates, which ensure uniform microstructures and minimize defects. These alloys typically form face-centered cubic (FCC) or body-centered cubic (BCC) structures, contributing to their exceptional strength, hardness, and mechanical performance across various temperatures. However, FCC-structured HEAs often have low yield strengths, posing a challenge for structural applications. In this study, a Ni-Co-Fe-Cr-Al-Ti HEA was manufactured using the DED method. This study proposes that the addition of aluminum and titanium creates a γ + γ' phase structure within a multicomponent FCC-HEA matrix, enhancing the thermal stability and coarsening the resistance and strength. The γ' phase with an ordered FCC structure significantly improves the mechanical properties. Analysis confirmed the presence of the γ + γ' structure and demonstrated the alloy's high tensile strength and microhardness. This approach underscores the potential of AM techniques in advancing HEA production for high-performance applications.

Homogeneous removal of heterogeneous CFRP composite via aluminum/polyimide laminate assisted femtosecond laser processing

Carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) composed of carbon fiber and polymer matrix has been used in extensive applications due to its light weight and superior strength. However, the distinct difference in physicochemical properties between two constituents poses a significant challenge for laser homogeneous processing of heterogeneous CFRP. Herein, an aluminum/polyimide laminate is introduced onto CFRP as an assisting layer during femtosecond laser processing, which prevents CFRP from direct energy deposition of low-energy edge of the Gaussian laser. Moreover, a synergetic mechanism of horizontal heat conduction of aluminum foil and vertical heat insulation of polyimide film is proposed and confirmed through temperature measurements and simulation calculations. The heat is dissipated through the aluminum foil and obstructed by the polyimide film, alleviating the detrimental heat transfer and accumulation on CFRP. Therefore, it significantly inhibits thermal damage and entrance size expansion. Compared with traditional femtosecond laser direct processing, the maximum reduction ratio of HAZ and taper are up to 98% and 83%, respectively. High-quality CFRP homogeneous processing with an ultra-low HAZ (0.7 μm), minimal taper (0.07°) and intact smooth sidewalls can be achieved. The method shows great potential to dramatically improve processing quality and broaden applications of heterogeneous composites.