Diplomatic Tool Research Articles

THE FIRST WOMEN IN RESPONSIBLE POSITIONS IN THE MINISTRIES OF FOREIGN AFFAIRS OF POLAND AND UKRAINE (Kazimiera Iłłakowiczówna and Nadia Surowcowa)

The article shows the fate of the first women to hold responsible positions in the foreign ministries of Poland and Ukraine in the period of formation of the diplomatic services of both countries during the struggle of Ukrainians and Poles for the restoration of state independence in 1917-1921. At that time, diplomacy was a purely male field of activity. However, Kazimiera Iłłakowiczówna in Poland and Nadia Surowcowa in Ukraine have proven that women can work effectively in the diplomatic service. They were both fluent in several foreign languages, demonstrated creative approaches to solving complex problems, and fought for women's rights. Surowcova became the first woman in Ukrainian diplomacy to hold the position of head of an independent unit, the first spokesperson of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the first Ukrainian woman to defend her dissertation at the University of Vienna. Iłłakowiczówna proved the effectiveness of women in Polish diplomacy in various positions, she was the first to use the tools of public diplomacy during foreign trips with lectures on Poland and J. Piłsudski, she introduced diplomatic protocol in the Ministry of Military Affairs. Through their activities, both diplomats left important lessons of responsibility, professionalism, and creativity to future generations of women in diplomacy. The article concludes that these two unique women, despite extraordinary challenges, lived long and vibrant lives, went through fame, envy, oblivion and revival of memory, and became true legends - as diplomats and writer and journalist. Each of them found themselves in the diplomatic service by accident, but immediately realised their mission and pride in joining diplomacy as an important state institution in the days of its formation.

PECULIARITIES OF THE ACTIVITIES OF WOMEN CULTURAL AMBASSADORS WHO CREATE A POSITIVE IMAGE OF UKRAINE IN THE WORLD IN THE CONTEXT OF THE RUSSIAN-UKRAINIAN WAR

The article emphasises that public diplomacy is one of those areas and dimensions where a woman, using all her skills, can best prove herself. After all, public diplomacy really has no restrictions, reservations, templates, frameworks, clearly defined rules and canons, protocol and regulations. It can have a wide variety of manifestations, include different tools, and at the same time speak freely to any foreign-language, foreign-culture audience. Today, especially in times of war, a woman of any profession can become influential in the field of public diplomacy, and this will be valuable in helping Ukraine. However, it is now important to support Ukrainian women, open up new opportunities for development, teach public diplomacy tools, promote the potential of public diplomacy at the community level, and create special organisations, platforms, initiate discussion and expert platforms so that Ukrainian women unite, share experiences in public diplomacy, seek and find material and spiritual resources for projects, and thus feel more confident and bold - this will be invaluable to our country. Everyone can engage in public diplomacy. And in the context of Russia's current brutal war against Ukraine, it is a duty for all Ukrainians: both those who have recently been forced to move abroad and those who have long lived in exile and are part of the Ukrainian diaspora. Even those who leave Ukraine for a short time for one reason or another unwittingly become ambassadors of their country. Today, any step, contact, speech, appeal, or larger action by a Ukrainian man or a Ukrainian woman may result in the attention and positive attitude of a foreigner who is a representative of the civil society of a particular country, which in turn may provide financial or military assistance to Ukraine. However, on the other hand, public diplomacy, in my expert opinion, is not for everyone. It is, indeed, a very thorough and complex phenomenon, something that requires flair, experience, practice, knowledge, skill, mastery and considerable resources, both intellectual, spiritual and material.

Exhibiting for Purpose: Finnish Art in Moscow in 1934

This article is a case study that illustrates the complex intersection of art, politics, and diplomacy in the interwar period. Based on Finnish and Soviet archival documents and press publications, it examines the entire process of organising a Finnish art show abroad. The exhibition, held from 28 November to 24 December 1934, in Moscow, was seen as a landmark event, drawing significant attendance and fostering Finnish–Soviet cultural exchange. By analysing various factors contributing to its success, we provide a detailed picture of both artistic and political influences, demonstrating how cultural events can transcend mere aesthetic appreciation to become significant diplomatic tools.

From Cuba to the World: The Ripple Effect of US Sanctions

This paper explores the complex and enduring application of U.S. economic sanctions on Cuba, the longest-standing sanctions regime in modern history. Economic sanctions, a prominent tool of international diplomacy, are designed to influence or penalize states to achieve specific political objectives. The study offers a comprehensive historical overview of the sanctions imposed on Cuba since the Cuban Revolution of 1959. It examines the key phases of the embargo, including its escalation under various U.S. administrations and its multifaceted impacts on Cuban domestic affairs and international trade. Through a detailed analysis, this paper reveals that, while the sanctions aimed to induce regime change, their effectiveness has been ambiguous. Domestically, U.S. political dynamics, particularly the influence of Cuban-American voters and shifting political agendas, have significantly shaped the persistence and intensity of the sanctions. Furthermore, the study highlights how the sanctions have impacted global trade dynamics, illustrating that the U.S. has maintained a quasi-monopolistic advantage in the Cuban market while ostensibly addressing humanitarian concerns. The findings indicate that the sanctions on Cuba, rather than being a straightforward case of failure, have provided strategic benefits to the U.S. despite their limited success in achieving their primary political goals. This nuanced perspective sheds light on the broader implications of economic sanctions and their role in international relations.

Публична дипломация за климата: градовете като нов участник

We are witnessing a deepening climate crisis that not only threatens people’s livelihoods and hinders development, but raises important geopolitical issues: sovereignty, territorial integrity and access to resources such as water, food and energy. It has the potential to cause significant impacts on societies, undermining people’s security and increasing the risks of conflict and instability. Addressing them requires a strategic and coordinated response at the global level. The tools of public diplomacy are among the possible steps for solutions and responses. While climate diplomacy largely refers to negotiations between governments in the context of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), numerous scientific analyzes and concrete facts show that climate issues and the „diplomacy“ surrounding them go beyond this narrow perspective or frame. A large percentage of climate initiatives are actually carried out by global networks of cities.

BEYOND RHETORIC: CHINA'S PUBLIC DIPLOMACY IN KENYA THROUGH A POLITICAL-ECONOMIC LENS (2013-2020)

This article explores the evolution of China-Kenya relations within the context of China's broader public diplomacy strategy, focusing particularly on the period from 2013 to 2020. The foundation for these bilateral relations was laid as China opened up to developing countries and African nations gained independence. While formal diplomatic relations between China and Kenya were established in 1963, it was during the 2000s that these relations diversified significantly under the leadership of Chinese President Hu Jintao and Kenyan President Mwai Kibaki. This diversification spanned commercial, cultural, and political domains, becoming a notable example of public diplomacy. With the ascension of Chinese President Xi Jinping, China's public diplomacy experienced a strategic shift towards a more assertive and politically oriented approach. This study argues that under Xi Jinping, new initiatives and strategic plans were introduced, enhancing the existing framework of China's public diplomacy. A key element of this transformation was the increased emphasis on foreign aid, which gained momentum through the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI). Between 2013 and 2020, China's foreign aid to Kenya played a pivotal role in reshaping the structure of Chinese public diplomacy. This period saw a continuation and expansion of activities in culture and media, established in earlier phases, alongside a growing focus on infrastructure development, humanitarian aid, healthcare assistance, and educational and cultural projects. The study begins by examining traditional public diplomacy tools such as cultural exchanges, high-level visits, and educational initiatives. It then discusses specific projects implemented between 2013 and 2020, analyzing their contributions to public diplomacy efforts. Finally, the article provides an overview of these projects, as documented in AidData, highlighting their impact on the bilateral relations between China and Kenya.

Constructing Chinese Firms as Development Catalysts: State-Firm Public Diplomacy Collaboration in Kenya

ABSTRACT The debate surrounding China’s public diplomacy in Africa highlights how the state coordinates and leverages Chinese actors, including firms, to advance diplomatic objectives. However, this article questions the notion of unidirectional state dominance by exploring the intricate interactions between the Chinese state and firms around promoting and publicizing corporate social responsibility (CSR), which is conceptualized as a public diplomacy tool of corporations to engage with the foreign public. Using the lens of public diplomacy, the author examines the unconventional state-firm interplay in the symbolic domain, shedding light on practices of China’s expansion in Africa. Through two empirical cases, the author demonstrates the interdependence and collaboration between the Chinese state and firms, revealing their divided interests and contested cooperative efforts to enact public diplomacy in Kenya.

Cultural Diversity under Sino-Myanmar Policies: Local Policies to Promote Cultural Expression and Diversity

This study investigates the complex Sino-Myanmar connection and how local policies might promote cultural diversity. The mixed-methods research combines qualitative community, cultural, and policymaker interviews with quantitative policy data analysis. The comprehensive approach provides a deep understanding of cultural diversity, local regulations, and Sino-Myanmar relations. Based on this research, municipal policies can empower communities to freely and inclusively display their cultures. By valuing cultural diversity, genuine cultural interaction and contact between diverse groups can improve Sino-Myanmar relations. This study investigates cultural diversity through local policies and lived experiences to shed light on Sino-Myanmar relations and suggest strategies to improve cooperation. The research’s practical implication affects policymakers, diplomats, and practitioners who manage international relations, especially between neighbors. Culture-oriented thinking considers cultural exchange programs diplomatic tools. Geographic closeness affects cultural contact; hence community is addressed. This highlights cultural exchange programs' diplomatic relevance. According to research, diplomatic endeavors should adapt to cultural changes during political and social change. Policymakers can stabilize domestic politics using cultural diplomacy.

Ottoman diplomacy in Greece: the case of Syros, 1830–1900

The island of Syros in the Cyclades almost spontaneously emerged in 1830 as a prominent transit and trade hub for Greece and the Ottoman Empire. The present work is an attempt to conduct a deductive reading on the impressive number of documents produced by the Ottoman Consulate General of Syros (şehbenderlik) records to answer two interrelated questions: (I) how the Ottoman Empire engaged with its former territory and (II) what kind of diplomatic tools the Sublime Porte used to deal with the security challenges it perceived emerging in the Eastern Mediterranean after the establishment of the Hellenic Kingdom in 1830. Delimiting a definition of illegality during the Age of Mobility in the Middle East, the states depended on one another to control and define the movements of illegality but paradoxically refused to cooperate. Frustrated, the Ottoman Empire, appropriated from European international legal thought, acted in typical nineteenth-century imperial coerciveness and considered using force to occupy Syros to compel the Greek state. The current article asserts that the Ottomans not only appropriated the French model of diplomacy but also European justifications of imperialism as it pertained to diplomatic coercion.

“Higher up, further” approaching air transport in postcolonial Africa through the biographies of planes

The 1960s were a pivotal moment for global air transport: the confluence of the technological innovations of the jet age and the formal decolonisation of most African countries resulted in a new connectivity between Africa and the world, as global aerial mobility rapidly intensified. This paper focuses on the multifaceted role of the jet plane in this process. Jets as flag carriers were key objects in terms of national representation on foreign ground for the newly independent nations. They featured prominently as icons of postcolonial African modernity, were diplomatic tools in the Cold War context and were valuable business assets in a competitive global market. The biographies of the first African-owned jets, Air Afrique's DC-8s and Ethiopian Airlines’ Boeing 720Bs, were analysed for this paper. Following these biographies brings to the fore the social life of planes as a new and exciting research avenue for postcolonial aerial infrastructure and geographies.

Allen Leeper, the Foreign Office and the Diplomacy of Air Disarmament, 1932-1934

ABSTRACT As the resident Foreign Office expert on air disarmament during the World Disarmament Conference, Allen Leeper was at the forefront of a campaign for the elimination of military aircraft as a radical bid to address German claims to equality and French demands for security. His motivations derived from a deep-seated fear that legitimising a German air force posed an unacceptable risk to European stability by provoking an all-out arms race, heightening continental tensions and raising the spectre of war. But Leeper’s sweeping solution for military aircraft, with its intertwined repercussions for civil aviation, fell victim to an increasingly truculent government in Berlin that refused to delay equality, claimed substantial increases in German military strength and boosted defence spending while surreptitiously rearming behind the scenes. In these altered circumstances, Leeper abandoned disarmament as a diplomatic tool for treating the Franco-German question and, instead, resorted to other traditional methods for ensuring continental stability. In doing so, he displayed the strengths of the ‘world leadership’ school of foreign-policy making that placed a premium on Britain’s active engagement in great power politics to uphold its position as the pre-eminent global power.

The Impact of Japan's Cultural Diplomacy on the Construction of Japan's Traditional Cultural Soft Power

After World War II, Japan improved its national image and soft power through a series of cultural diplomacy tools. Cultural diplomacy aims to enhance understanding and friendship among the peoples of different countries through culture-related means of external communication. Soft power, on the other hand, refers to the third aspect of a country's strength, in addition to economic and military power. Japan's cultural diplomacy has a profound impact on the construction of its traditional cultural soft power. This article adopts a longitudinal single-case study approach to sort out Japan's traditional culture, including cultural heritage, traditional skills, spiritual culture, and national character. The article finds that Japan has enhanced its goodwill towards Japan in Europe, America and Southeast Asia through its active participation in international co-operation, reform and strategic positioning of government institutions, development of tourism, cultural and artistic exchanges, and promotion of celebrity masterpieces. This suggests that the building of Japan's traditional cultural soft power can be translated into favorable feelings towards Japan among people in other countries. However, the inherent closedness of traditional culture and history-related traditional culture are the obstacles that need to be overcome in the construction of Japan's traditional cultural soft power.

Batik and Tenun Endek Diplomacy as a Cultural Legacy from Soeharto’s to Jokowi’s Administration

The research explored an interesting relationship between Indonesian cultural heritage and international relations. It focused on Batik Indonesia and Tenun Endek Bali as strategic tools for cultural diplomacy efforts across different presidential administrations. Starting with President Soeharto’s use of Batik as a gift at the United Nations in the 1980s, these textiles have appeared at six major ASEAN and APEC Summits. The key research question was whether these gorgeous textiles had been effective in promoting Indonesian culture on a global stage. The research aimed to analyze the evolution of Batik Indonesia and Tenun Endek Bali, emphasizing significant international events where they gained recognition, such as the ASEAN and APEC Summits. The research applied a qualitative method and archival content to analyze the journey of batik and Tenun Endek Bali in Indonesian diplomacy. The findings present a compelling narrative. The research suggests a potential link between the use of batik and Tenun Endek and positive outcomes at global meetings, including free trade (APEC 1994), regional cooperation (ASEAN Summit 2011), and consensus building (G20 2023). This highlights Indonesia’s evolving role on the international stage. The research offers a fresh perspective by examining the long-term use of batik and Tenun Endek Bali by Indonesian presidents as cultural diplomacy tools at global events, proposing a novel link to positive outcomes, and highlighting cultural heritage’s potential as a ‘soft power’ diplomatic strategy.

Language as a tool for creating a positive Image of the state in the system of Interstate Relations (using the example of China's Global Security Initiative)

The article examines the language tools used to create a positive image of the state in the system of interstate relations using the example of China's global security initiative. Special attention is paid to metaphors as a key element of linguistic influence. The article examines how various metaphorical techniques contribute to the formation of a favorable perception of China in the international arena. Attention is focused on the analysis of official texts related to the Global Security initiative in order to identify and interpret key metaphors. The object of our research is political discourse. The subject of the study is the image of China in the context of the representation of the Global Security Initiative. The research makes a significant contribution to the theory of intercultural communication and political linguistics, expanding the understanding of the role of language in interstate relations and the formation of public opinion. Critical discourse analysis allows us to evaluate the linguistic means of the text used, the pragmatic purpose of which includes not only an informational appeal to the world community explaining the political position of the Chinese government, but also the creation of a certain image of the country. A comprehensive analysis of the use of metaphors in official statements and documents of the People's Republic of China concerning the global security initiative is being conducted. This analysis allows us to identify specific metaphorical constructions that China uses to create a positive image in the international arena.The study deepens the understanding of how metaphors function in interstate relations and influence the perception of China as a peacemaker and stable partner. This includes studying how metaphors contribute to the formation of a positive image and strengthen trust between states. The findings of the study can be applied in the practice of international relations and diplomacy, providing recommendations on the use of language tools to improve the image of the state. This is important for developing effective public diplomacy and communication strategies. The conclusions of the article emphasize the importance of the competent use of metaphors as a tool of diplomacy and a strategic communication resource in the modern world.

A Catholic Approach to Dialogue as a Tool of Diplomacy

This article elaborates dialogue as one of the most important tools of faith-based diplomacy from the Catholic perspective, as presented by some post-conciliar popes. In the first part, after presenting the state of the art, some characteristics of dialogue are briefly outlined. Subsequently, its “ideal type” fulfilling some basic preconditions is introduced. The third part sheds some light on the levels of dialogue in public and multilateral diplomacy, explaining the ways dialogue promotion works in diplomacy. The final part presents some outcomes of dialogue in diplomacy and international politics in general. The content analysis applied in the article is based on various statements of the popes delivered in their speeches, addresses, homilies, letters, exhortations, and encyclicals.

Economic diplomacy: Analyzing theories and models for informed policy

This paper examines the intricate relationship between economic theories, trade policies, and diplomatic engagements in the context of international relations. Utilizing theoretical frameworks such as the theory of comparative advantage and the Heckscher-Ohlin model, we analyze the foundational principles guiding global trade and policy-making. We explore the role of probabilistic models, including Bayesian statistics and regression analysis, in forecasting economic trends and their implications for international relations. Furthermore, we investigate the impact of trade policies, including tariffs, non-tariff barriers, and global trade agreements, on economic dynamics and diplomatic interactions. Through case studies of economic sanctions, we assess the effectiveness of sanctions as a diplomatic tool and propose policy recommendations for their optimal implementation. Our analysis highlights the complexity of economic diplomacy and underscores the importance of quantitative analysis in informing policy decisions and fostering international cooperation.

Oil embargo as a diplomacy tool: possibilities and limitations on the example of the Israeli crisis

In the following article the possibility of application of the oil embargo tool as a mean of impacting the crisis settlement is considered. The chosen case is the Palestine-Israel confl ict in its active phase since October 2023. The Yom Kippur war of 1973 and the invasion of Israel by Hamas of 7 October 2023 are compared, distinguishing similarities and diff erences. The common features are the start of the operation exactly 50 years after the historical precedent, collective character of the attack, its suddenness, and also a huge potential of Arab countries in the world oil market. There are some distinctive features revealed by the author, though. The Arab states are to a bigger extent aimed at conducting negotiations and resolving the confl ict by diplomatic means than in 1973, the structure of the world oil market is different compared to how it was 50 years ago, giving the OPEC members less possibilities for action, as well as fragmentation among the cartel members themselves, decreasing the opportunity agree on the embargo. The author remarks the intention of several Arab countries, in particular, Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, Qatar, to mediate the confl ict, as well as their aspiration to preserve the trend of restoring relations with Israel. The article highlights the position of researchers about the importance of network diplomacy during confl ict settlement. The shares of countries non entering the OPEC, namely, the United States of America, Russia, Canada are investigated. The conclusion about their important role as oil producers, what limits the possibility of oil embargo,is done. The question of lack of political unity among the OPEC members, as, for example, Saudi Arabia and Iran, Iran and Iraq, is unveiled. The factor of political instability in Libya is emphasised. The author comes to the conclusion about necessity to possess a significant share in the oil market, as well as the political consensus for an effective usage of the oil embargo tool. The relevance of the article is based on an increasing role of the Palestine-Israeli confl ict in contemporary international relations, but also the necessity to study the possibility of using the oil embargo in the current conditions, being based on the successful experience of 1970s. The chosen methods are historical and comparative analysis.

Four major challenges in modern diplomacy: How the specialist diplomatic hierarchy can help

AbstractThe 21st century has been accompanied by significant global changes that confound traditional diplomacy. This article focuses on modern diplomacy and the four main challenge areas it faces. These challenges necessitate diplomatic adaptation to remain relevant and effective. To achieve this modernization, the author suggests the implementation of a newly created hierarchy for the selection, training, deployment, ranking, and promotion of a more specialized diplomatic corps. This process is envisioned to occur within four streams of specialization, each with its own type of expert diplomat. This new diplomatic tool is called the Specialist Diplomatic Hierarchy (SDH).

Effect of international travel sanctions on global tourist arrivals

AbstractTravel sanctions are a strategic diplomatic tool that are generally preferred by sanctioning countries to other invasive actions because they can reduce or avoid casualties and losses and achieve policy goals. The present study investigates the relationship between travel sanctions and the number of international tourist arrivals by employing a gravity model from 1995 to 2015. The empirical results reveal that imposing international travel sanctions leads to a decrease in the number of tourist arrivals. Moreover, sanctions between developed countries have more influential effects than those between developing countries.

Examining China and Japan’s Narratives as Diplomatic Tools: Competitive Nature and International Influence

ABSTRACT In the new millennium, China and Japan have become eager to use narratives and discourses as diplomatic tools to manage external relations and enhance their international profiles. Although these trends have prompted research into the discourses and narratives of China and Japan, previous studies have not fully explored the competitive characteristics of the two states’ ideational visions. This article aims to unravel the nature and features of ideational competition between China and Japan by focusing on representative narratives in their diplomatic strategies. It argues that China has employed narratives as diplomatic tools for practical utility through integration with material capabilities, whereas Japan has disseminated narratives as part of its comprehensive external engagements, given its declining material capabilities. The narratives of China and Japan hold significant importance in the international system. Their effective use of narratives has a crucial impact on the western-dominated international discourse system, offering new perspectives to uphold an international order and global governance.