Diplomatic Tool Research Articles

Digital Diplomacy in Russian International Studies: Research Methods

In the last decade, digitalization has had an increasing impact on the world political processes and is turning into an integral element of international life. Diplomatic practice, given the growing importance of the digital diplomacy, is no exception. In this context, the need for continuous improvement of the methods of studying these processes and phenomena is all the more pressing. This paper examines the key methods used in Russian studies on digital diplomacy, and identifies their strengths and weaknesses. The first section of the article covers publications built on the discourse analysis of small texts on international policy or their excerpts. The author concludes that such an approach allows for a correct description of the communication strategies of various political players. However, it is more suitable for linguistic research, since it does not address the issues crucial for political scientists, namely those concerning the evaluation of the effectiveness of digital diplomacy tools. The second section considers the research works based on the content analysis. The author argues that although this method provides an opportunity to process a larger amount of data and to reduce the impact of subjective factors, it has its limitations, particularly, inability to take into account the visual component of publications and to place them within a wider information context. The third section focuses on the scholarly papers drawing on the most time-consuming and demanding method of Big Data (hashtags) processing. The author stresses that its application is fraught with a whole range of quite specific methodological and purely technical problems, in particular, screening out bots and other ways of traffic manipulation. Against this backdrop, the author advocates further improvement in the methods of studying digital diplomacy by fostering a culture of data analytics and making a more active use of developments from other disciplines (philology, sociology, cultural studies, etc.).

‘Niche Diplomacy’ by Middle Powers in the Middle East: Cases of Saudi Arabia, Iran, Türkiye and Egypt

At a time when international politics has become multipolar, middle powers are adopting strategic autonomy on matters of global importance, and the world is witnessing multifaceted challenges due to military conflicts and geopolitical tensions, it is important to understand the ways in which Middle Eastern powers are exerting influence in regional and international arenas. With growing geostrategic tensions, among big powers, the role of middle powers, especially in a strategically important Middle East, becomes significant. This article takes the cases of four Middle Eastern middle powers, namely Saudi Arabia, Iran, Türkiye and Egypt, and analyses their international relations through the lens of ‘niche diplomacy’ and argues that these powers have developed niche diplomacy tools to seek influence and status at the regional and international arena. The article offers a novel framework to analyse the diplomatic manoeuvres of the Middle Eastern middle powers that help in deciphering the increasingly complex diplomatic and strategic developments in the region.

Sustainable Indonesia's Digital Public Diplomacy: The Impact of Twitter Content on Engagement Metric

Objective: This study examines how Twitter content affects engagement metrics in Indonesian public diplomacy. It aims to identify themes and emotional tones that drive higher engagement and offer insights for optimizing Twitter as a tool for diplomacy. Theoretical Framework: The concept of audience engagement in social media highlights the strategic role of narrative and emotional resonance in shaping public perception. Method: Using the Random Forest method, the study analyzes data from Indonesian diplomatic Twitter accounts, categorizing posts by themes (e.g., conflict response, leadership, cooperation, crisis) and emotional tones (positive or negative). Engagement metrics such as likes, retweets, and comments are assessed to understand the impact of content characteristics. Results and Discussion: Results indicate that content emphasizing conflict responses, Indonesian leadership, and international cooperation generates high engagement, particularly when infused with positive emotions. In contrast, crisis-related posts, general information, and negative emotional tones attract lower interaction, underscoring a preference for constructive and uplifting communication. Research Implications: These findings provide actionable insights for enhancing social media strategies in public diplomacy. Indonesian practitioners can prioritize high-engagement themes and emotional tones to amplify their diplomatic outreach. The research also demonstrates the utility of machine learning in analyzing social media data, contributing a quantitative approach to digital diplomacy studies. Originality/Value: By focusing on Twitter content and its engagement impact, this study bridges computational techniques with public diplomacy, offering practical and theoretical value. It emphasizes the importance of thematic relevance and emotional tone in crafting effective public diplomacy messages.

China’s Covid-19 Aid Diplomacy in 2020: Patterns and Motivations

Summary This article investigates the determinants underlying the Chinese Covid-19 global humanitarian aid campaign in 2020 by statistical analysis on a novel author-made dataset that tracks Chinese aid across the globe in 2020. The results show that many existing Chinese humanitarian aid practices first followed a policy of near universalism of aid, but then resumed more traditional forms of Chinese humanitarian aid targeting the Global South on a bilateral basis in the latter half of the campaign. Aid was allocated based on mixed motives that included humanitarian calculations, but also a more short-term diplomatic calculus typical of disaster diplomacy and other non-humanitarian factors. Chinese humanitarian aid needs to be considered as an important public diplomacy tool as it can be used to reward closer partnerships with China and penalise their absence.

Cultural diplomacy as a promoter of China’s foreign policy

The relevance of the study is due to the rapid development of cultural diplomacy in the PRC against the background of the confrontation between the People's Republic of China and the US for world domination. The object of the study is the cultural diplomacy of the People's Republic of China. The subject of the study is the cultural diplomacy of China. A research objective is to determine the role of cultural diplomacy in the foreign policy of the People's Republic of China. The main tasks of the research are to investigate the history of Chinese cultural diplomacy after the formation of the People's Republic of China, to identify key changes in the PRC’s cultural diplomacy against the background of the deterioration of bilateral relations with the USSR, to analyze the PRC’s cultural diplomacy at the current stage, to define the main tools of implementation of cultural diplomacy of the People's Republic of China. This study is based on the "power transition" theory, explaining the process of changing the global leader in the world scene and its accompanying processes. The scientific novelty of this study is to define key tools of cultural diplomacy of the PRC at the current stage, which can include academic exchanges, dissemination of Chinese language, cinema, video games; to establish Western youth as a key goal of Chinese cultural diplomacy. The main conclusions of the study are analisys of the cultural diplomacy of the PRC, establishment of the main directions of PRC's cultural diplomacy, identification of a change in the vector of cultural diplomacy of the PRC against the background of the deterioration of bilateral relations with the USSR, identification of the key tools of cultural diplomacy of the PRC at the current stage.

RELIGION AS A DIPLOMATIC TOOL IN INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS: A MULTIFACETED INFLUENCE

Religion, as conventionally attached to the private sphere, lately plays an instrumental role in international relations. This means that, while the world becomes more global, religion serves as an instrument for a country to extend its influence, build alliances, and contribute towards the cause of peace. This paper will look at how, within the cultural, spiritual, and moral restraints of statecraft, religion functions as a tool of diplomacy to strengthen international relations. It examines the dual roles that religion plays in diplomacy as a force of coherence and division. Thus, it can mediate solutions to conflict through encouraging interfaith dialogue that then aids peace-building processes. A notable example is the G20 Interfaith Forum, where leaders from G20 nations tackle global challenges like human rights and environmental protection. At times, strategic religious narratives might also trigger ideological divisions or conflicts. This paper captures some of these instances with clear case studies, more so by India, one of the proponents of religious diplomacy. The rise of the Hindu Right has seen religion being weaved into India's foreign policy as well, appending the objective of projection of a coherent national identity and upsurge in the soft power of the country on the global front. The potential for religion to serve as a diplomatic tool is huge, but when applied it should be handled with much caution in order not to exacerbate global tensions. To conclude, the strategic use of religion presents both opportunities and challenges to diplomacy, therefore shaping international relations crucially.

DISTRIBUTION NETWORK CABLE DETECTION BASED ON TERAHERTZ PULSE AND IMAGING

The article is dedicated to one of the key problems of our time - migration processes in Europe and their consequences on the example of the Benelux countries. The purpose of the study is to identify the features of the migration policy of the Benelux countries in recent years, the mechanisms of their regulatory and legal system, capable or unable to regulate migration processes. Using the comparative-institutional method, as well as event analysis, the trends of migration in this region as a recipient of a significant influx of emigrants and refugees, are shown. Attention is focused on the common and distinctive features of the migration policy of Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg. The author notes the generally liberal approach of the Benelux countries to solving the problem, which to a certain extent damages their national interests, creates social and humanitarian problems. The authorities of these countries are faced with an increase in migration from Muslim countries and their religious attitudes, the refugee crisis, and issues of social adaptation and integration of migrants. Immigration processes are accompanied by an increase in crime, destabilization of the internal situation, and discontent of the local population. The authorities are forced to periodically review their political and diplomatic tools, adapt and modify them in order to reduce the number of illegal migrants and the risks of renewed conflicts on ethnic and religious grounds. The author relied on the works of domestic and foreign authors, statistical information of European migration services, as well as information from international experts in this field. As a result, the characteristics of the migration policy of the countries under study are given, the consequences of mass migrations are determined. The author substantiates the conclusion that the solution to the migration issue in the Benelux countries is not visible in the near future, despite the coordinated efforts of their security structures. Effective management of migration and mitigation of negative consequences have yet to be developed and put into practice.

The EU Public Diplomacy in Latin America: State of Affairs, Challenges and Prospects

The article addresses the public diplomacy of the EU in Latin America in the context of the geopolitical confrontation between Brussels and Moscow, as well as the growing influence of China in the region. The EU's efforts to reduce Russia’s political influence in Latin America through public diplomacy tools increases the need for a comprehensive study of interaction of EU diplomats with the Latin American public. Using social constructivism and normative power theory as a methodological basis, the authors identify the features of the EU public diplomacy in the region and the challenges faced by European officials in their practice. The specifics of public diplomacy of the EU in Latin America are outlined: emphasis on advocacy, cultural diplomacy and academic exchanges as key instruments of interaction with the local community; functioning in conditions of a positive attitude of the majority of the population of the region to the EU; focus on the monologue communication in digital diplomacy. The key challenges for Brussel’s public diplomacy in Latin American include a shortage of financial and human resources, effective media policy of Russia and China differentiation of Latin American countries in the eyes of the EU in terms of democratic development that reduces the ability of Brussels to promote its value-normative agenda. The authors forecast the development of the EU public diplomacy in the region, assuming that it is unlikely to improve in the coming years.

Network modelling as a tool for cyber diplomacy

ABSTRACT Visual representations of votes at the UN can assist cyber diplomacy practitioners, researchers and stakeholders in communicating and interpreting voting behaviour. The colour-coded maps that were first used to represent key votes now struggle to capture the complexity and nuances of the cumulative voting record. This article critically examines visualisation methods that have been used in the past. It introduces the advantages of a network model approach and demonstrates how it can be used to visualise a series of diplomacy votes at the UN. Finally, it describes how community detection algorithms can be applied to the network models to identify and better understand middle ground countries in cyber diplomacy.

Identity, Displacement and Obscuring the Native Personality: Towards Decolonising Indigenous Folks in Ìlàjẹ Names

Fulfilment takes diverse forms and superimposing identity on supposed subjects who attempt to imitate whatever belongs to the impostor and considering it as the best standard they could imitate is the greatest form of satisfaction that a group of people that are not remotely connected could have from an overseas people. Apart from subsuming the identity of the people in the overall supremacy of the tiny people of an island in Britain, colonialism represents a subtle robbery of the possessions of the weak. Twenty indigenous surnames in the Ìlàjẹ/Ìkálẹ̀ communities of Ondo State exemplify the immediate and long-term goals of the colonialists. The names are interpreted and divorced of their underlying colonial undertones which seek to praise and arrogate positive vibrations to the subsisting relationship between the folks and those who colonized them. While deploying the tool of post-colonialism, the essay unravels the tool of diplomacy, exaggeration and arrogation of divine capabilities to themselves as reasons for the holistic acceptance of the colonialists as next to God, superhuman and greater than the black folks.

Constraining to deter

AbstractGovernments use a variety of tools to discourage, impede, or limit the ability of foreign adversaries to purse their ambitions. Some of these measures seek to constrain an opponent's capacity, while others seek to deter an opponent to take (or not) a particular action. We develop a theory to study how constraining and coercive threats interact strategically. Building on canonical models of deterrence, we first identify how coercive measures, in isolation, curb an aggressor's transgressions. We then identify when constraining measures and the threat of coercion (deterrence) are substitutes and when they are complements. In some cases, constraining measures make deterrence effective when it would otherwise fail (constraining to deter). Our results offer insights about measuring the effectiveness of various diplomatic tools. We highlight a series of novel empirical challenges stemming from the interaction of selection effects and ecological features of a sample of country dyads, and discuss potential solutions.

Pergeseran Persepsi Budaya oleh Eksistensi Bahasa Indonesia pada Mahasiswa di Korea Selatan (2020-2024)

As time progresses, language has become one of the diplomatic tools used in the international arena. In South Korea, interest in the Indonesian language has been growing, as evidenced by the increasing number of students showing interest in learning it each year. The author identifies an urgency to monitor the perceptions formed when foreign nationals learn Indonesian—in this context, South Korean society. This research seeks to elaborate on the cultural perceptions that emerge with the presence of the Indonesian language in South Korea. The aim of this study is to understand how the construction of cultural perceptions takes shape in the minds of South Koreans when they learn Indonesian. A descriptive qualitative research method was used, with data collection techniques in the form of interviews. The findings of this study indicate a shift in cultural perceptions of Indonesia, with Indonesian language learning fostering curiosity about Indonesian culture. Ultimately, this indirectly plays a role in promoting Indonesian culture. This shift is evident both in the mindset and in social interactions within the student community learning Indonesian.

Analysis of Iran's Maritime Strategy in the Strait of Hormuz Under Admiral Tangsiri's Leadership

Iran has long utilized the Strait of Hormuz as a strategic tool to strengthen its position in regional and global geopolitics. The research method is qualitative descriptive. Data analysis uses SWOT to evaluate the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats in the maritime strategy in the Strait of Hormuz. The research results show that Iran's maritime strategy under Admiral Tangsiri has evolved by enhancing asymmetric defense capabilities, utilizing fast boats, drones, and anti-ship missiles to threaten ships passing through the strait. The analysis includes geopolitical, economic, and security factors influencing maritime policy, as well as how the strategy is used as a tool of diplomacy and military power. Iran has successfully projected its maritime power in the Strait of Hormuz as a form of strategic defense against external threats, despite facing challenges from complex regional dynamics.

Ukrainians Abroad in the System of Ukraine’s Public Diplomacy

This article explores the application of public diplomacy tools in light of new challenges and threats, and substantiates the role of Ukrainians abroad (Ukrainians residing beyond the borders of the State) as one of its key actors. It analyzes fundamental state documents related to the development of public diplomacy. The article outlines the main objectives, mechanisms, and tools of the current model of Ukraine's public diplomacy. It concludes that the normative-legal framework needs adaptation to modern challenges and threats, and state documents require appropriate changes and additions. Based on recent international rankings, the article highlights the primary challenges Ukraine is facing today and discusses how the foreign Ukrainian community can contribute to addressing them. It outlines the critical areas where Ukrainians living abroad can engage in public diplomacy. The article concludes that the full-scale Russian invasion necessitates a shift in the priorities of public diplomacy from branding to political advocacy. The advocacy activities of Ukrainian organizations abroad, particularly those established after the full-scale Russian invasion, are analyzed. The article stresses the significance of unity and solidarity among all waves of the Ukrainian diaspora and the Ukrainians abroad as a whole, especially the newly arrived, predominantly young and highly educated Ukrainians who quickly integrate into the societies of their host countries and can subsequently actively promote Ukrainian interests at various levels. The article emphasizes that Ukrainians abroad have the potential to become a key actor in the implementation of Ukraine's public diplomacy and proposes specific mechanisms and measures of state policy in this direction.

THE FIRST WOMEN IN RESPONSIBLE POSITIONS IN THE MINISTRIES OF FOREIGN AFFAIRS OF POLAND AND UKRAINE (Kazimiera Iłłakowiczówna and Nadia Surowcowa)

The article shows the fate of the first women to hold responsible positions in the foreign ministries of Poland and Ukraine in the period of formation of the diplomatic services of both countries during the struggle of Ukrainians and Poles for the restoration of state independence in 1917-1921. At that time, diplomacy was a purely male field of activity. However, Kazimiera Iłłakowiczówna in Poland and Nadia Surowcowa in Ukraine have proven that women can work effectively in the diplomatic service. They were both fluent in several foreign languages, demonstrated creative approaches to solving complex problems, and fought for women's rights. Surowcova became the first woman in Ukrainian diplomacy to hold the position of head of an independent unit, the first spokesperson of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the first Ukrainian woman to defend her dissertation at the University of Vienna. Iłłakowiczówna proved the effectiveness of women in Polish diplomacy in various positions, she was the first to use the tools of public diplomacy during foreign trips with lectures on Poland and J. Piłsudski, she introduced diplomatic protocol in the Ministry of Military Affairs. Through their activities, both diplomats left important lessons of responsibility, professionalism, and creativity to future generations of women in diplomacy. The article concludes that these two unique women, despite extraordinary challenges, lived long and vibrant lives, went through fame, envy, oblivion and revival of memory, and became true legends - as diplomats and writer and journalist. Each of them found themselves in the diplomatic service by accident, but immediately realised their mission and pride in joining diplomacy as an important state institution in the days of its formation.

PECULIARITIES OF THE ACTIVITIES OF WOMEN CULTURAL AMBASSADORS WHO CREATE A POSITIVE IMAGE OF UKRAINE IN THE WORLD IN THE CONTEXT OF THE RUSSIAN-UKRAINIAN WAR

The article emphasises that public diplomacy is one of those areas and dimensions where a woman, using all her skills, can best prove herself. After all, public diplomacy really has no restrictions, reservations, templates, frameworks, clearly defined rules and canons, protocol and regulations. It can have a wide variety of manifestations, include different tools, and at the same time speak freely to any foreign-language, foreign-culture audience. Today, especially in times of war, a woman of any profession can become influential in the field of public diplomacy, and this will be valuable in helping Ukraine. However, it is now important to support Ukrainian women, open up new opportunities for development, teach public diplomacy tools, promote the potential of public diplomacy at the community level, and create special organisations, platforms, initiate discussion and expert platforms so that Ukrainian women unite, share experiences in public diplomacy, seek and find material and spiritual resources for projects, and thus feel more confident and bold - this will be invaluable to our country. Everyone can engage in public diplomacy. And in the context of Russia's current brutal war against Ukraine, it is a duty for all Ukrainians: both those who have recently been forced to move abroad and those who have long lived in exile and are part of the Ukrainian diaspora. Even those who leave Ukraine for a short time for one reason or another unwittingly become ambassadors of their country. Today, any step, contact, speech, appeal, or larger action by a Ukrainian man or a Ukrainian woman may result in the attention and positive attitude of a foreigner who is a representative of the civil society of a particular country, which in turn may provide financial or military assistance to Ukraine. However, on the other hand, public diplomacy, in my expert opinion, is not for everyone. It is, indeed, a very thorough and complex phenomenon, something that requires flair, experience, practice, knowledge, skill, mastery and considerable resources, both intellectual, spiritual and material.

Exhibiting for Purpose: Finnish Art in Moscow in 1934

This article is a case study that illustrates the complex intersection of art, politics, and diplomacy in the interwar period. Based on Finnish and Soviet archival documents and press publications, it examines the entire process of organising a Finnish art show abroad. The exhibition, held from 28 November to 24 December 1934, in Moscow, was seen as a landmark event, drawing significant attendance and fostering Finnish–Soviet cultural exchange. By analysing various factors contributing to its success, we provide a detailed picture of both artistic and political influences, demonstrating how cultural events can transcend mere aesthetic appreciation to become significant diplomatic tools.

From Cuba to the World: The Ripple Effect of US Sanctions

This paper explores the complex and enduring application of U.S. economic sanctions on Cuba, the longest-standing sanctions regime in modern history. Economic sanctions, a prominent tool of international diplomacy, are designed to influence or penalize states to achieve specific political objectives. The study offers a comprehensive historical overview of the sanctions imposed on Cuba since the Cuban Revolution of 1959. It examines the key phases of the embargo, including its escalation under various U.S. administrations and its multifaceted impacts on Cuban domestic affairs and international trade. Through a detailed analysis, this paper reveals that, while the sanctions aimed to induce regime change, their effectiveness has been ambiguous. Domestically, U.S. political dynamics, particularly the influence of Cuban-American voters and shifting political agendas, have significantly shaped the persistence and intensity of the sanctions. Furthermore, the study highlights how the sanctions have impacted global trade dynamics, illustrating that the U.S. has maintained a quasi-monopolistic advantage in the Cuban market while ostensibly addressing humanitarian concerns. The findings indicate that the sanctions on Cuba, rather than being a straightforward case of failure, have provided strategic benefits to the U.S. despite their limited success in achieving their primary political goals. This nuanced perspective sheds light on the broader implications of economic sanctions and their role in international relations.

Публична дипломация за климата: градовете като нов участник

We are witnessing a deepening climate crisis that not only threatens people’s livelihoods and hinders development, but raises important geopolitical issues: sovereignty, territorial integrity and access to resources such as water, food and energy. It has the potential to cause significant impacts on societies, undermining people’s security and increasing the risks of conflict and instability. Addressing them requires a strategic and coordinated response at the global level. The tools of public diplomacy are among the possible steps for solutions and responses. While climate diplomacy largely refers to negotiations between governments in the context of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), numerous scientific analyzes and concrete facts show that climate issues and the „diplomacy“ surrounding them go beyond this narrow perspective or frame. A large percentage of climate initiatives are actually carried out by global networks of cities.

BEYOND RHETORIC: CHINA'S PUBLIC DIPLOMACY IN KENYA THROUGH A POLITICAL-ECONOMIC LENS (2013-2020)

This article explores the evolution of China-Kenya relations within the context of China's broader public diplomacy strategy, focusing particularly on the period from 2013 to 2020. The foundation for these bilateral relations was laid as China opened up to developing countries and African nations gained independence. While formal diplomatic relations between China and Kenya were established in 1963, it was during the 2000s that these relations diversified significantly under the leadership of Chinese President Hu Jintao and Kenyan President Mwai Kibaki. This diversification spanned commercial, cultural, and political domains, becoming a notable example of public diplomacy. With the ascension of Chinese President Xi Jinping, China's public diplomacy experienced a strategic shift towards a more assertive and politically oriented approach. This study argues that under Xi Jinping, new initiatives and strategic plans were introduced, enhancing the existing framework of China's public diplomacy. A key element of this transformation was the increased emphasis on foreign aid, which gained momentum through the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI). Between 2013 and 2020, China's foreign aid to Kenya played a pivotal role in reshaping the structure of Chinese public diplomacy. This period saw a continuation and expansion of activities in culture and media, established in earlier phases, alongside a growing focus on infrastructure development, humanitarian aid, healthcare assistance, and educational and cultural projects. The study begins by examining traditional public diplomacy tools such as cultural exchanges, high-level visits, and educational initiatives. It then discusses specific projects implemented between 2013 and 2020, analyzing their contributions to public diplomacy efforts. Finally, the article provides an overview of these projects, as documented in AidData, highlighting their impact on the bilateral relations between China and Kenya.