Diplomatic Relations Research Articles

Strategies For Addressing The Spillover Effect Of Mosaic Warfare In The South China Sea Conflict To Achieve National Security Stability

The South China Sea is a strategic area rich in natural resources and a crucial international shipping and trade route, making it a focal point of territorial disputes between China, the Philippines, Vietnam, Malaysia, Brunei, and Taiwan. This conflict escalates tensions and the potential spillover effects of mosaic warfare that can impact Indonesia's national security and stability. This journal analyzes the strategic implications of the South China Sea conflict for Indonesia, exploring defensive and proactive strategies to mitigate risks and enhance national resilience. This research uses a qualitative descriptive approach based on historical analysis and content analysis, successfully identifying key areas of concern such as increased maritime security risks, the need for enhanced military capabilities, and the importance of regional and international cooperation. Proposed strategies include increased diplomatic engagement, strengthening defense capabilities, intelligence and security technology cooperation, and diversifying economic and trade routes. Indonesia must adopt a multifaceted and proactive strategy to protect its interests amidst regional instability, strengthen diplomatic relations within ASEAN and globally, enhance military and surveillance capabilities, and ensure economic resilience against potential disruptions in maritime trade routes. Public education and adherence to international law are also crucial for maintaining regional peace and security.

BEYOND RHETORIC: CHINA'S PUBLIC DIPLOMACY IN KENYA THROUGH A POLITICAL-ECONOMIC LENS (2013-2020)

This article explores the evolution of China-Kenya relations within the context of China's broader public diplomacy strategy, focusing particularly on the period from 2013 to 2020. The foundation for these bilateral relations was laid as China opened up to developing countries and African nations gained independence. While formal diplomatic relations between China and Kenya were established in 1963, it was during the 2000s that these relations diversified significantly under the leadership of Chinese President Hu Jintao and Kenyan President Mwai Kibaki. This diversification spanned commercial, cultural, and political domains, becoming a notable example of public diplomacy. With the ascension of Chinese President Xi Jinping, China's public diplomacy experienced a strategic shift towards a more assertive and politically oriented approach. This study argues that under Xi Jinping, new initiatives and strategic plans were introduced, enhancing the existing framework of China's public diplomacy. A key element of this transformation was the increased emphasis on foreign aid, which gained momentum through the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI). Between 2013 and 2020, China's foreign aid to Kenya played a pivotal role in reshaping the structure of Chinese public diplomacy. This period saw a continuation and expansion of activities in culture and media, established in earlier phases, alongside a growing focus on infrastructure development, humanitarian aid, healthcare assistance, and educational and cultural projects. The study begins by examining traditional public diplomacy tools such as cultural exchanges, high-level visits, and educational initiatives. It then discusses specific projects implemented between 2013 and 2020, analyzing their contributions to public diplomacy efforts. Finally, the article provides an overview of these projects, as documented in AidData, highlighting their impact on the bilateral relations between China and Kenya.

The Importance of Cross-Border Education in Contexts of Collaboration Between Countries According to the SDGS

Introduction: Cross-border education refers to collaboration between countries to promote learning opportunities across geographic boundaries, aiming to develop global citizens. This educational model emphasizes student and teacher mobility, cultural diversity, and international cooperation, which are essential for the development of 21st century skills. Objective: The aim of the study was to explore the importance of cross-border education in contexts of collaboration between countries, highlighting the benefits, challenges, and contributions to sustainable development. Method: This is a qualitative analysis based on the analysis of international partnerships, exchange programs, bilingual curricula, and the use of technological innovations in education. Results: Cross-border education promotes international cooperation, intercultural understanding, and strengthens diplomatic relations. Although it faces logistical and administrative challenges, such as recognition of qualifications and academic mobility, it offers numerous opportunities for cultural and academic enrichment. Conclusions: Cross-border education is vital for building an inclusive and sustainable global society (SDG). Overcoming the challenges requires effective policies and international cooperation. Investing in emerging technology trends is crucial to expanding access to and quality of cross-border education.

Indo-Sino: Obfuscated Unrelenting Relations

The relations between India and the People’s Republic of China commence with an initial atmosphere of cordiality. But the affinity become sour after the Tibet issue, giving asylum to Dalai Lama in Dharamshala, the border dispute, the mistrust of each other took them into the war of 1962. After 1962 war, diplomatic relations between two countries were severed and after 1988, a period of reform began in it. Currently the Indo-Sino relations are in ambivalent, intimacy and vacillate by affinity mode. In the 21st century, Indo-Sino relations have evolved with notable positive aspects despite inherent complexities.

The United States in the World Today: How Sociologists Think About It and Why It Matters

The study of policy alone often means domestic policy, of interest to generalist sociologists interested in how political ideas are turned into domestic legislation, executive action, and/or court litigation. Foreign policy, as the financial, commercial, diplomatic and military relations of a state with foreign states, remains a niche subfield. But foreign relations should be conceived of as the broader set of entanglements between societies, encompassing transnational movements, expert networks, and fields. Then, sociological theories of foreign relations can interest generalist sociologists. In this review, we illustrate how this broad view of foreign relations applies to the study of the United States in the world today (USitWT) by first surveying how sociologists of the world society and world system have focused on transnational relations and the place of the United States in their dynamics, and how they have engaged with the question of power. We then demonstrate how field theorists’ study of transnational fields can allow sociologists to reconceptualize the historical role of the USitWT by highlighting continuities between European colonial governmentalities and current US transnational practices. This field perspective can allow sociologists to understand the USitWT as transnational, postcolonial, or neo-colonial governmentality, depending on the sociological and historical depth and range of its relation with different parts of the world.

The political economy of electricity market coupling: Comparing experiences from Europe and the United States

Advancing the integration of neighbouring power markets is widely identified in the literature as a key enabler of power system efficiency, flexibility, and variable renewable energy integration. Nonetheless, the existing economic literature offers only partial explanations of why greater market integration is difficult to achieve in the real world despite its evident advantages in terms of overall welfare, supply security, and competitiveness. It is argued that power market coupling is an inherently political process involving significant institutional contestation and adaptation, and hence requires a more nuanced political analysis to be fully understood. This paper adds to the existing literature by conducting a comparative political economy analysis of electricity market coupling processes in Britain, Italy, and California, spanning from 2013 to 2021. It seeks to unpack how differences in the political economy contexts of these jurisdictions influenced the electricity market coupling process with their respective neighbouring systems. The analysis draws on 86 key policy documents, and 53 in-depth interviews with senior power system stakeholders in the three jurisdictions. Results widely align with claims in the political economy literature that market coupling outcomes do not simply reflect the most efficient solution. While all three jurisdictions have shown a commitment to enhance regional integration of short-term wholesale energy markets, there is considerable variation in policy outcomes, particularly the extent to which different segments of the market have been coupled. These differences can largely be attributed to variations in the political economy contexts of the three jurisdictions, including multi-level governance structures, diplomatic relations with neighbouring countries, and interactions with national political priorities and contexts. The main implications for the governance of electricity market coupling are discussed in the conclusion.

A novel central bank digital currency framework design for offline and foreign transactions based on blockchain

Purpose Fiat money production necessitates physical commodities, increasing costs and its flow is challenging to monitor, making it vulnerable to criminal exploitation. Cryptocurrencies offer decentralized solutions, but their decentralization has led to illegal activities. Current cross-border transactions face high costs, resource intensity and lack of instant currency transfers. Offline transactions are essential in unreliable networks. Design/methodology/approach Here, the authors proposed the methodology to perform offline transactions based on card, quick response (QR) code and a foreign transaction framework with universal identification (UID) to perform cross-border transactions using blockchain-dependent central bank digital currencies (CBDCs). Implications for the financial system are also analyzed. Findings The proposed CBDC framework reduces illegal transactions, corruption and the cost of producing fiat money; eases overseas transactions; and eventually increases international tourism, trade and business between countries. It also reduces the processing fees. Offline framework found useful for performing retail-level transactions. Research limitations/implications The research methodology may face limitations due to diplomatic relations, political instability, sanctions and the need for robust offline transaction infrastructure. Practical implications The proposed CBDC framework simplifies debt and insurance management, tax collection, international trade, tourism and global stock market participation. However, implementing CBDCs in low-income countries presents challenges like extensive training, infrastructure and user acceptance issues. Social implications The adoption of CBDCs can enhance financial stability by reducing corruption and illegal transactions through improved traceability and monitoring, thereby curbing activities like terrorism. Originality/value Common framework for foreign transactions is based on the UID, and offline transaction framework is based on the sender’s QR code for multiple user applications.

Book review: Ajay Bisaria, Anger Management: The Troubled Diplomatic Relationship Between India and Pakistan

Ajay Bisaria, Anger Management: The Troubled Diplomatic Relationship Between India and Pakistan (Delhi: Aleph Book Company, 2024), 560 pp. ₹999, ISBN: 9393852758 (Hardback).

The Establishment of Diplomatic Relations Between the Russian Empire and the Kingdom of Portugal

The Establishment of Diplomatic Relations Between the Russian Empire and the Kingdom of Portugal

Investment Arbitration: A Model for Resolving Property Law Disputes on the Example of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Republic of Croatia?

Property disputes between Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Republic of Croatia are a reality that burdens the entirety of international diplomatic relations between two neighboring countries of the same subregion. After the dissolution of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (SFRY), numerous issues arose, of which property rights are among the most important. The republics of the former SFRY, as well as natural and legal persons, had their property in the entire territory of Yugoslavia, so it was necessary to adequately protect the existing rights. In this regard, in 2001, the Successor States of the SFRY concluded the Agreement on Succession, in which they agreed on movable and immovable property through seven Annexes. Bosnia and Herzegovina (BiH) started from the view that the comprehensive implementation of the Succession Agreement is the basis of permanent, stable, and friendly relations between the Contracting States and took all that was necessary to return the property claimed by the Successor States. However, the Republic of Croatia did not return the property in the way that Bosnia and Herzegovina did, and the first country started to violate the aforementioned multilateral international agreement. Given that the Agreement on Succession does not offer adequate solutions for the peaceful settlement of international disputes between the Contracting Parties, the paper analyzes the possibility of settlement of said disputes based on investment arbitration, which as a model for the settlement of international disputes is not an instrument used by individuals and legal entities from BiH into a sufficient extent. Equally, in this light, we explore the legal possibilities of the concluded Agreement on the Promotion and Protection of Investments between Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Republic of Croatia (bilateral investment treaty) and present the future of investment arbitration from the perspective of the European Union.

The Development of Bosnian Diplomacy Immediately Before and During the Aggression Against Bosnia and Herzegovina

Diplomacy in the conditions of aggression represented a painstaking multi-layered job, which was not easily implemented. The development of Bosnia and Herzegovina’s diplomacy should be observed immediately before the declaration of independence of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina in March 1992, because significant events took place a year earlier that would to a certain extent affect the recognition of Bosnia and Herzegovina as an independent state, as well as the international positioning of this country due to the war period. Although official Bosnian diplomacy can only be spoken of after the recognition of the independence of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and the establishment of competent state institutions, the year 1991 was extremely important, because the lobbying carried out by Bosnian politicians at the time on the international level, both in the West and in the East, was of great importance. importance, which certain international leaders confirmed when recognizing the independence of Bosnia and Herzegovina or establishing official diplomatic relations in the first months of 1992. Immediately before the holding of the Referendum on the independence of Bosnia and Herzegovina, the Government of the SR of Bosnia and Herzegovina had intensive contacts with officials from outside the then Yugoslavia, which was a kind of prerequisite for the later establishment of official diplomatic relations. The aim of the paper is to present the key events that were of great importance in the establishment of diplomatic contacts of Bosnian officials with the rest of the world, to clarify how Bosnian diplomacy developed in the conditions of aggression against the independent Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina.

The end of a myth? Turkish-American relations during the National Unity Committee Governments (1960–1961)

ABSTRACT The Democrat Party’s (DP) decade-long period in office ended with a military intervention on 27 May 1960. In the coup declaration, the National Unity Committee (NUC) announced that Turkey would remain loyal to its North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and Central Treaty Organization (CENTO) alliances as well as Turkey’s other international commitments. Turkey’s economic and military dependence on the USA (United States of America) also remained unchanged, contrary to the expectations of the Kemalists, leftists, and anti-DP circles who had mythicized the NUC’s role in Turkey’s independence from the USA. This study examines primary sources such as US archival records and the records of the Turkey’s constituent assembly and provisional government. It analyses the diplomatic relations between Turkey and the USA during this period and shows how Turkey’s dependence on the USA continued through economic and military assistance.

Upholding Sovereignty and Constitutional Mandates: The Philippine Supreme Court’s Ruling on the Tripartite Agreement for Joint Marine Seismic Undertaking in the South China Sea

Abstract This article examines the Philippine Supreme Court’s landmark ruling declaring the Joint Marine Seismic Undertaking (jmsu) unconstitutional, emphasizing its implications for Philippine foreign policy and territorial disputes in the South China Sea. The jmsu, an agreement between China, Vietnam, and the Philippines for joint exploration in a contested maritime area, was challenged for contravening the Philippine Constitution’s provisions on national sovereignty over natural resources. The decision reaffirms the Philippines’ sovereign rights and sets a legal precedent emphasizing the primacy of the Philippine Constitution in international agreements on natural resource exploration. This article discusses the decision’s significant impact on Philippine foreign policy, the ongoing territorial and maritime disputes in the South China Sea, and its wider relevance to diplomacy and international law. The ruling marks a critical affirmation of Philippine sovereignty and adherence to legal norms, shaping the country’s future diplomatic relations and stressing the importance of constitutional fidelity in international agreements, especially within the contentious South China Sea areas.

Sejarah Islam di Nusantara Pengaruh Kebudayaan Arab dan Persia Dalam Penyebaran Islam di Nusantara

This writing explores how Arab and Persian culture influenced the spread of Islam in the archipelago. Through an accommodative, acculturative and syncretic approach, Islam in Indonesia developed with the strong influence of these two cultures. The main focus of this writing is to look at the role of Arab and Persian culture in the Islamization process through trade routes, diplomatic relations, art, architecture and literature. The method used in this writing is a qualitative method with a literature study approach. Data was collected from various literature discussing the history and development of Islam in the archipelago, especially regarding the influence of Arab and Persian culture. The results show that Arab and Persian culture has a significant role in the spread of Islam in the archipelago. The discovery of the tombs of Persian ancestors from the 14th century AD such as Fatimah bint Maimun and Malik Ibrahim from Kasyan in Java is evidence of this influence. During the Umayyad and Abbasid caliphate, the Persian Empire had close ties with the Islamic world and played an important role in the spread of Islam to the archipelago through trade and diplomatic relations. The influence of Arab and Persian culture not only introduced Islamic teachings to the local population, but also shaped Islamic identity. in the archipelago. Trade and diplomatic relations are the main channels for the spread of Islamic teachings and practices, and it is concluded that Arab and Persian culture has a very important role in the Islamization process in the archipelago. The influence of these two cultures not only spread the religion of Islam, but also enriched and shaped Islamic cultural identity in Indonesia, making Islam an integral part of the lives of the people of the archipelago.

“Daring and Heart-Wrenching Jewish Film”— Reception of Aleksander Ford’s “Border Street” in Israel

The main subject of the paper is the distribution and critical reception of the film Border Street (dir. A. Ford, 1948) in Israel at the end of the 1940s. Conducting a review of archival diplomatic reports and texts published in the Israeli press of the time, the author reconstructs the strategic rationale behind the film’s export to the Jewish state and analyzes its reception in local media. The conducted analysis demonstrates the significant popularity of the film in Israel and the considerable role Border Street played in the context of broader cultural and diplomatic relations between the two nations.

75 Years of Diplomatic Relations between Romania and India

After gaining independence (1947) and following the partition of its vast territory, India wanted to reassert itself on the political scene and develop economically. One step towards achieving these goals was establishing diplomatic relations with as many countries as possible. The period that followed saw numerous diplomatic agreements concluded by India with countries from Asia and Europe. Diplomatic relations with Romania began in the first half of the 20th century and they continue today on a political, economic and cultural level. Romania and India established diplomatic relations in 1948, at legation level, and in 1957 relations were raised to embassy level. Romania’s diplomatic office in India opened in 1955, and India’s in Romania in 1959. From the discussions and negotiations, to the cultural and political relations established, the history of the beginning of diplomatic relations between Romania and India deserves to be analyzed and discussed. The existence of the Romanian Embassy in New Delhi and of the Indian Embassy in Bucharest proves the desire, but also the necessity, to create a close link between the two countries. In the last 75 years, Romania and India managed to follow common interests and created a strong partnership.

Foreign Policy of Germany towards Kazakhstan

After the collapse of the Soviet Union, a large number of newly formed states appeared on the geopolitical map of the world, some of which are located in Central Asia. As one of the largest and most influential countries in Europe, Germany sought to establish strong economic, political and cultural ties with these countries. The author pays attention to the stages of development of bilateral relations from the early 90s to the present.Aim. The aim of this study is to identify key aspects of German foreign policy in the region, focusing on relations with Kazakhstan.Tasks. Study the main stages of the development of diplomatic relations between Germany and Kazakhstan. Identify the current state of relations between Germany and Kazakhstan. Explore possible expansion of economic ties and prospects for future cooperation. Show the importance of studying the foreign policy of Germany in relation to Kazakhstan for the Russian Federation.Methods. The research methodology is based on historical analysis, which helped to identify the stages of development of international relations between the two states. The comparative analysis defines the differences in the foreign policy line of Germany towards Kazakhstan at different stages. Regular summit meetings were the objects of event analysis.Results. By examining historical context, economic partnerships, and geopolitical considerations, it is possible to investigate the dynamics shaping German engagement in Central Asia.Conclusions. The genesis of the development of interstate relations was the collapse of the USSR, which served to form sovereign states in the post-Soviet space. The development of bilateral relations is characterized by several stages: some of them were characterized by stagnation, others, by an increase in the attention of Germany to Kazakhstan. The beginning of 2022 served to intensify Germany’s foreign policy in the region. At the present stage, Germany uses a multi-pronged approach that includes diplomatic, economic, cultural and educational components. Germany’s foreign policy in the region is aimed at protecting its national interests. Secondly, the partnership with Kazakhstan is a symbol of Germany’s shared foreign policy goals, emphasizing the importance of cooperation, dialogue and joint development efforts in the heart of Eurasia.

Changing situation of Chinese migrants in the Far East at the late 1920s

In the 1920s a significant number of Chinese migrants lived in the Far Eastern region. They carried out their activities in various branches of local industry and participated in the development of trade. The living conditions of Chinese migrants were influenced by both the transformation of the domestic political and economic situation as well as changes in Soviet-Chinese relations at the international level. The end of the 1920s was characterized by an increase in international tension, including the intensification of confrontation between the Soviet state and China. The conflict on the Chinese Eastern Railway and the subsequent rupture of Soviet-Chinese diplomatic relations had a significant impact on Chinese migrants living in the Far Eastern region. The situation of Chinese migrants has deteriorated significantly, and their displacementt has been observed. Arrests, searches, and detention were used by Soviet law enforcement agencies, and therefore many Chinese migrants decided to return to their homeland. These factors contributed to a reduction in the number of Chinese entrepreneurs and industrial workers in the region. The conflict on the Chinese Eastern Railway also resulted in the appearance of Chinese prisoners of war in the territory of Transbaikalia, with whom appropriate political work was carried out by Soviet state and party bodies.

Nepal-India Political Relations: A Comprehensive Analysis of Historical Dynamics, Contemporary Challenges, and Future Prospects

This research provides a comprehensive analysis of the historical dynamics, contemporary challenges, and future prospects in Nepal-India political relations. The diplomatic ties between the two nations, rooted in shared history, cultural affinities, and geographical proximity, have witnessed both cooperation and discord over the centuries. While historical documents highlight periods of mutual respect, the study delves into the complexities of the Treaty of Peace and Friendship in 1950, solidifying diplomatic bonds. However, recent years have seen a shift in this narrative, marked by territorial disputes, economic imbalances, and evolving geopolitical dynamics. Contemporary challenges include territorial disputes leading to diplomatic intricacies and economic imbalances raising questions about the equitable nature of the bilateral relationship. The research adopts a mixed-methods approach, combining historical analysis, policy examination, and stakeholder perspectives to offer timely and relevant insights. Key informant interviews with political leaders, diplomats, and professionals provide a diverse understanding of the multifaceted issues at hand. The study identifies territorial disputes and unequal diplomatic treaties as major challenges, contributing to tensions in Nepal-India relations. It emphasizes the need for a peaceful discourse to resolve border encroachments and calls for a revision of existing treaties in light of changing regional and international circumstances. Additionally, socio cultural affinities between the two nations are explored, with strategies proposed for bridging gaps and fostering a sense of shared identity. The research concludes with strategies for future cooperation, advocating for a balanced diplomatic relationship that considers the changing global landscape. The equidistance principle is discussed, urging both nations to adapt their mindsets and refrain from micromanaging each other's domestic politics. The study underscores the importance of recognizing the historical ties between Nepal and India, emphasizing the potential for multifaceted alliances in the future.

The Role Of The Armenian Community In UAE-Armenia Relations

This paper explores the important role of the Armenian community residing in the United Arab Emirates (UAE) in strengthening bilateral relations between the UAE and Armenia. It highlights the contributions of the Armenian community in UAE to diplomatic relations and the promotion of Armenian culture in the region. The study also emphasizes the cultural programs organized by the embassies and the importance of fostering intellectual dialogue between Armenian and Emiratis. It discusses potential areas for collaboration in the diplomatic sphere between the Republic of Armenia (RA) and the UAE as well as the favourable business environment for UAE companies in Armenia.