Diplomatic Research Articles

Clash of Diplomatic Cultures between Europe and China around 1800: A Rereading of the Macartney Mission

Abstract This essay revisits some familiar diplomatic encounters between European nations and China in the decades around 1800. It proceeds from a theoretical distinction between diplomacy within an international society and diplomacy between international societies. The set of ideas, principles, and institutions of diplomatic interaction within an international society may be summarily termed its diplomatic culture. Diplomacy between international societies lacks a shared diplomatic culture, involving instead negotiations between different diplomatic cultures. The European embassies to China around 1800 epitomize diplomacy between international societies. The essay examines in some detail the attempts on both sides to make sense of the diplomatic exchange, in which they were engaged: translating documents, documenting actions, and interpreting the events by poetic means. All these attempts turned out to entrench differences rather than induce agreements. This predicament was to be resolved only by violence.

Creative Diplomacy in Constantinople: Virginia Woolf and Kang Youwei

Abstract This article discusses two figures who visited Constantinople/Istanbul in roughly the same period, English writer Virginia Woolf (1906) and Qing China reformer Kang Youwei (1908). While Woolf and Kang arrived in Istanbul from different contexts, they were each deeply interested in Istanbul as the capital of an empire that called their own into provocative comparison. Both produced texts that were the result of critical reflections upon their encounters there, and each would also go on to advocate for profound societal reforms, with shared emphases on social equality, pacifism, and cosmopolitan critiques of the state. By reading Kang’s and Woolf’s Istanbul-inspired and other related texts alongside one another, this article presents these literary texts as forms of creative diplomacy that engage with historical, aesthetic, and ethical dimensions of difference, and that highlight the possibilities of imaginative interventions into official diplomatic practices and narratives.

A cross-platform comparison of China’s confrontational diplomatic communication

ABSTRACT In recent years, increasingly confrontational diplomatic communication has become a concerning trend, marked by a rise in aggressive narratives between nations. This study explores the transformation of diplomatic communication in the digital age, focusing on the practices of Chinese wolf-warrior diplomacy on social media. By analysing Zhao’s social media posts on international (Twitter) and domestic (Weibo) platforms, we quantified his confrontational diplomatic narratives using structural topic modelling. We then investigate how social media affordances like micro-targeting and boundary spanning, combined with domestic social, political, and economic contexts, shape these confrontational narratives. Our findings demonstrate that Zhao’s communication style varies between platforms: it is reactive and defensive on Twitter, addressing international audiences, while being proactive and offensive on Weibo, targeting domestic audiences. This strategic use of social media serves not only diplomatic goals but also aligns with China’s nationalist sentiments and domestic policies. Our study reveals that China’s wolf-warrior diplomacy is both a result of and a contributor to the changing dynamics of international relations and domestic politics, offering a novel framework for understanding confrontational diplomacy’s rise globally.

Criteria that Characterize Diplomacy at the International Level in the Matter of Environmental Protection

The current stage of international environmental diplomacy knows a constant increase in the performance of institutions and organizations, concerned with controlling the impact produced by negative human activity on the environment. The concept of globalization is the key factor, which brings with it a series of major changes in political and economic terms but also in international relations as a process, moreover challenges in international diplomacy as an essential element, in the development of international disputes with the objective of sustainable development of the environment.

Constructing decolonisation: the Greenland case and the birth of integration as decolonisation in the United Nations, 1946–1954

How did it become possible for Denmark to integrate Greenland into the colonial metropole during anti-colonial post-Second World War multilateral diplomacy on decolonisation? Scholarship on the evolution of international society generally equates post-war political decolonisation with the universalisation of sovereign independence. This leaves unaddressed that a quarter of colonial territories did not emerge as sovereign states in post-war political decolonisation. Through multi-archival research, this articles starts to address this conundrum by tracing the emergence of integration into the colonial metropole as a route to political decolonisation in early multilateral diplomacy within the United Nations and how this option was first applied to Greenland. Entering the diplomatic engine room, I demonstrate the generative impact of Danish diplomatic practices and the constitutive importance of a discourse of Danish colonial exceptionalism to explain the legal emergence of decolonisation as integration by 1952 and Denmark’s ability to employ this option in the United Nations by 1954. The implications of the paper for scholarship on the evolution of international society go beyond uncovering the emergence of integration as a legal option in political decolonisation. Through its attention to everyday discursive negotiation and diplomatic practice, the article nuances extant scholarship by demonstrating that early post-war multilateral diplomacy was less a quick propagation of universal sovereignty than a contentious, ongoing, negotiation over the meaning and application of self-determination.

Comparative analysis of the structure of simple sentences in Russian and Chinese diplomatic documents

This article is devoted to the study of complex structures of simple sentences in Russian and Chinese diplomatic documents of the late XX - early XXI century in order to identify similarities and differences. The main purpose of the work is to identify similarities and differences in the complex structure of simple sentences in Russian and Chinese, as well as to analyze the causes of their occurrence. The article analyzes the various structures of simple sentences in Russian and Chinese, identifies differences and similarities in the complex structure of simple sentences in diplomatic documents of both countries. The factors influencing the formation of these structures were also identified. Special attention is paid not only to the style of the documents, but also to the specifics of the language itself. The research material was bilingual documents from the period from 1994 to 2023, collected from the websites of the Ministries of Foreign Affairs of Russia and China. Transformational, structural and comparative methods are appropriate in the analysis of the material. The novelty of the research lies in the initial comparative analysis of the structure of simple sentences in diplomatic documents of the two countries, taking into account the linguistic features of the Russian and Chinese languages.The results of the study showed that although complex structures of simple sentences are widespread in diplomatic documents of both countries, the results of the study showed that the structures themselves and the factors of their formation differ. Comparative analysis allows for a better understanding of the unique features and peculiarities of the languages of each cultural tradition, which can be useful for various fields related to intercultural interaction and diplomatic communication. The results obtained can be applied in linguistics, translation studies, intercultural communication and diplomacy for a deeper understanding of linguistic expressiveness and communicative strategies in diplomatic practice.

CHINA'S CULTURAL SOFT POWER IN BANGLADESH: ACHIEVEMENTS AND CHALLENGES (2000-2020).

ABSTRACT
 Cultural dominance is one of the most significant aspects of soft power strategy in global politics. The most influential countries employ cultural soft power to consolidate their positions on international platforms to enhance national interests. This study explores China's cultural soft power strategies in Bangladesh by examining its achievements and challenges. It identifies that China has extended its cultural dynamics to considerable levels in Bangladesh, including arranging cultural programs and festivals, exchange programs, support for higher education, cultural institutes, media, availability of cultural content, and infrastructure development. However, China faces several challenges in achieving its soft power objectives due to cultural barriers, political manipulation, and proper management of facilities. This study recommends that China should develop initiatives to reduce the challenges in the country. This study followed a qualitative research method, based on secondary sources. This study fills a crucial gap in the understanding of China's efficacy in Bangladesh. A comprehensive insight into China's cultural soft power will help policymakers in enhancing bilateral relations as well as contribute to academia such as international relations, diplomacy and other intellectual horizons related to Bangladesh studies.
 
 
 
 Keyword: Cultural Soft Power, goals, China, Bangladesh

Motives For (Non) Recognition of Kosovo and Palestine

Objective: The recognition of new states is a complex process that is influenced by a range of factors, including interests and global developments. This article explores the primary reasons why some states hesitate to recognize the independence of Kosovo and Palestine. Method: The study employs an analytical and comparative method, drawing on various secondary sources. Moreover, we conducted quantitative research via a questionnaire to gauge the underlying motives for recognizing these two states. Results and Discussion: The study reveals that the reasons why states hesitate to recognize Kosovo and Palestine are varied. States that do not recognize Kosovo may recognize Palestine and vice versa. The level of political conflict between the state claiming independence and the mother state, legal arguments, and regional and international implications all play a role in the decision to recognize or not. Research Implications: The practical and theoretical implications of this research are discussed, providing insights into how the results can be applied or influence practices in international relations, foreign policy, and diplomacy. The study offers valuable insights for policymakers, diplomats, and researchers involved in conflict resolution, state-building, and international law. Originality/Value: This study contributes to the literature by presenting a fresh perspective on the motives for (non) recognition of Kosovo and Palestine. Various influences on specific preferences for recognition evidence the significance and value of this research. These motives for (non) recognition are not solely legal; they also depend on geopolitical orientation and regional dynamics.

Adaptation Attitudes Are Guided by “Lived Experience” Rather than Electoral Interests: Evidence from a Survey Experiment in Bangladesh

After decades of presuming that climate adaptation is a private good benefitting only those receiving resources to reduce individual climate risks, respondents in a survey experiment among the climate-vulnerable in Bangladesh chose less-particularistic adaptation projects than “electoral connection” disaster relief theories predict and more “short-sighted” projects than international diplomats anticipate. This article reports on the experiment, which asked a representative national sample of Bangladeshis whether they favor spending funds on short-term particularistic solutions (disaster relief stockpiles), medium-term inclusionary and non-excludable solutions (ocean embankments), or long-term, public goods solutions (the development of flood-resistant rice seeds). More respondents chose “middle ground” embankment spending, and a statistically significant change in respondent propensities was tied to their lived experience with climate vulnerability rather than electoral incentives. The logic of their choices contradicts existing explanations, implying that a reconsideration of vulnerable community preferences, and how to address them, may be needed.

Nepal’s Portrayal of Its International Image

This paper examines the evolution of Nepal's national identity in the modern context, moving beyond its traditional associations with stunning mountains, Buddha's birthplace, and Gurkha bravery. The study argues that Nepal's portrayal on the global stage is a complex interplay of ancient narratives, diplomatic engagements, and evolving national identity, all influencing its global status. The methodology employs historical analysis to explore Nepal's interactions with other nations, emphasizing the role of its Cold War-era strategic neutrality in shaping its diplomatic stance. Additionally, it analyzes documents to track changes in self-presentation, considering cultural aspects, tourism promotion, and humanitarian efforts as tools for crafting a positive global image. It further explores Nepal's involvement in UN peacekeeping, multilateral forums, and regional dynamics to illuminate the connection between self-presentation and diplomatic goals. Ultimately, the research underscores the importance of a comprehensive diplomatic strategy that aligns with Nepal's national interests and cultural heritage, enabling effective navigation of the complex global landscape while safeguarding its sovereignty.

Energy Diplomacy in the Era of Energy Transition

The development of international relations after the 1973 oil crisis was accompanied by the emergence of such phenomena and concepts as global and regional energy security, energy security of states, foreign energy policy and energy diplomacy. Institutionalization and development of mechanisms ensuring energy security – including global energy security – occurred and continues to occur under the conditions of dominance of hydrocarbon fossil fuels in the world energy balance, as well as in the context of energy consumption worldwide. The priorities of its provision at the global, regional and state levels were and are the security of demand, supply and transit of hydrocarbon raw materials, and the diversification of energy sources. After signing the Paris Climate Agreement in 2015, efforts are being made to accelerate the low-carbon transformation of the world economy and the pace of the global energy transition. This involves mechanisms for responsible investment, carbon regulation, greenhouse gas emissions management (climate management); uses a variety of socially significant interpretations of ongoing climate change. These processes are increasingly determining the foreign energy policy of states, international energy diplomacy and influencing the previously formed mechanisms for ensuring energy security. The article is aimed at generalization and systematization of the ongoing changes in the activities of both traditional international centers and institutes of global energy policy, and relatively new international platforms in the subject area under consideration, primarily the Conferences of the Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and their impact on energy policy and energy diplomacy.

Festival as Cultural Diplomacy: Kurultáj and Its Implementation in Hungary

Diplomatic endeavours encompass a range of strategies, including the organisation of cultural festivals, which serve not only as a means of engaging a broader audience but also as platforms for expressing a nation's identity. One notable example is the Kurultáj festival, which took place in Hungary under the auspices of the Magyar Turán Alapítvány. This festival exemplifies the practice of cultural diplomacy, attracting participation from various Central Asian nations. Through cultural diplomacy, participating countries aim to promote their respective national interests within the framework of the Kurultáj festival. This article examines the implementation of the Kurultáj festival between 2008 and 2022, focusing specifically on its association with neo-propagandist cultural diplomacy. It argues that the Kurultáj festival cannot be solely categorised as a manifestation of neo-propagandist cultural diplomacy.

30 godina članstva Bosne i Hercegovine u Ujedinjenim nacijama: Vitalno, vidljivo, održivo / 30 Years of Membership of Bosnia and Herzegovina in the United Nations: Vital, Visible, Viable

The article is part of a broader research into the diplomatic practice of Bosnia and Herzegovina, especially its positioning in international organizations, the use of rights and obligations arising from international membership for the purpose of realizing the foreign policy goals of the state, as well as the contribution of Bosnia and Herzegovina to the realization of the goals of those organizations. The focus is on the engagement of Bosnia and Herzegovina in a global international organization - the United Nations, over a period of thirty years

The Impact of the Legal Principle Pacta Sunt Servanda on the Implementation of the Agreement of Principles Governing the Normalization of Relations

This study investigates the influence of the legal principle of pacta pacta sunt servanda, cornerstone in the respect of international agreements and on the execution of the First Agreement of Principles Governing the Normalization of Relations. The First Agreement holds significant importance in fostering reconciliation among the involved parties and has been notably shaped by this principle, which underscores the complete and precise fulfillment of agreements. Through a thorough examination, this study provides an outline of the historical evolution and legal significance of this principle, its application within the framework of the First Agreement, and delves into the political ramifications and obstacles encountered during its execution within a dynamic international landscape. The research methodology involves the scrutiny of legal documents, pertinent case law, and academic literature. The findings contribute to our comprehension of the interaction between legal principles and political considerations in international accords. By elucidating the impact of this principle on the execution of the First Agreement, this research furnishes valuable insights for policymakers, legal practitioners, and scholars in the realm of international law and diplomacy.

Africans in China, Western/White Supremacy and the Ambivalence of Chinese Racial Identity

Abstract This article seeks to provide further insights into understanding the construction of Chinese identity by bringing the West/white into the picture of Afro-Sino racial relationships. It contends that the Chinese have internalized Western/white superiority through a long historical process, starting with the Western invasion in the 19th century and continuing with the construction of the contemporary historical narrative of the “century of humiliation.” This internalization and its ramifications can be observed in Chinese public discourses as well as diplomatic practices. Together with Western/white superiority, the Chinese also adopted a social Darwinist, competitive world view, using Western modernity as the yardstick by which to rank different peoples and societies in a racial hierarchy. Chinese racism against Africans is thus a projection of a harsh self-judgement. Unlike white supremacy in Western racial thinking, “Chinese supremacy” is often coupled with an inferiority complex.

Generative AI and the future for China’s diplomacy

AbstractThis paper explores the challenges of Generative AI technologies to China’s diplomatic engagement worldwide. First, it examines the discourse in China about the development of ChatGPT, by focusing on the treatment of the technology and the possible risks and opportunities regarding international affairs. Second, the article highlights four challenges: (1) the securitization of AI, where import/export controls, data access, and semiconductors open a new field of research; (2) the (techno-) socialism with Chinese characteristics and the response to the arrival of cutting-edge technologies from U.S. capital and their impact on the development of a local model; (3) the soft censorship: the development of a technology that responds in the "correct" way (i.e., in line with the ruling ideology) by discriminating the suitability of sources/data deemed correct and appropriate for the public sphere; (4) the impact on public diplomacy, as AI projects an aura of innovation and technological reputation. In summary, this paper contributes to the theoretical debate on the challenges posed by Generative IA technologies in the context of China’s diplomatic practices.

Diplomacy in the Age of AI: Challenges and Opportunities

As artificial intelligence (AI) continues to permeate various aspects of society, its impact on diplomacy and international relations becomes increasingly profound. This paper explores the challenges and opportunities presented by the intersection of diplomacy and AI. It examines how AI technologies are reshaping traditional diplomatic practices, influencing decision-making processes, and altering power dynamics among nation-states. Additionally, it discusses the ethical implications and governance frameworks necessary to navigate this evolving landscape. Despite the challenges, AI offers numerous opportunities for enhancing diplomatic efforts, fostering collaboration, and addressing global challenges in a more efficient and effective manner. By understanding and harnessing the potential of AI, diplomats can adapt to the changing landscape of international relations and leverage technology to advance diplomatic objectives.

Diplomacy in the Age of AI: Challenges and Opportunities

As artificial intelligence (AI) continues to permeate various aspects of society, its impact on diplomacy and international relations becomes increasingly profound. This paper explores the challenges and opportunities presented by the intersection of diplomacy and AI. It examines how AI technologies are reshaping traditional diplomatic practices, influencing decision-making processes, and altering power dynamics among nation-states. Additionally, it discusses the ethical implications and governance frameworks necessary to navigate this evolving landscape. Despite the challenges, AI offers numerous opportunities for enhancing diplomatic efforts, fostering collaboration, and addressing global challenges in a more efficient and effective manner. By understanding and harnessing the potential of AI, diplomats can adapt to the changing landscape of international relations and leverage technology to advance diplomatic objectives.

Artificial Intelligence: Opportunities and Challenges for the Global South with a Focus on Nepal

Artificial intelligence is a relatively new and contemporary technological tool that also figures significantly in the current discourse of international relations. AI stems from its ability to mimic human cognitive functions, allowing machines to perform tasks that previously required human intelligence. AI systems can analyze massive amounts of data, identify patterns, and make data-driven decisions by utilizing advanced algorithms, machine learning, and data processing capabilities. The primary goal is to improve efficiency, accuracy, and automation across multiple domains, including healthcare, finance, manufacturing, and transportation. Furthermore, AI has the potential to address complex challenges, innovate solutions, and contribute to scientific advancements, making it an effective tool for supplementing human capabilities and driving progress in a variety of fields. However, ethical considerations and responsible development are essential for ensuring the responsible and beneficial integration of AI into society. Concerns regarding AI have also been expressed from the viewpoint of foreign policy, national security, data privacy, and the possible replacement of humans by machines. This is expected to pose additional difficulties for developing nations like Nepal as it may be very expensive to use AI in various development endeavors that aim to address global issues on an equal footing with developed nations. Because most of the countries in the Global South are developing or least developed, AI may therefore present more challenges than opportunities to them.
 Hence, this article attempts to incorporate the various dimensions of AI in terms of the different perspectives that are encountered in this changing context of the AI world, as well as the real impacts that may be opportunities or threats to Nepal from the perspective of international relations and diplomacy.

Relevance of International Humanitarian Law in International Relations: National and International Contexts

International Humanitarian Law (IHL) holds significance within the realm of international relations which encompasses various disciplines such as international law, diplomacy, and interactions among national and international entities. The prevalence of over 100 armed conflicts underscores the imperative for parties involved in conflicts and other influential actors to comprehend IHL. In the face of ongoing armed confrontations worldwide, the continued relevance of IHL in shaping international relations becomes apparent. States must prioritize the promotion of respect for IHL to establish a robust international relations system. This article endeavors to explore the interconnectedness of IHL with international relations and assess its importance. The study will delve into the role and significance of IHL in the context of international relations, with a particular focus on Nepal, where the Ministry of Law and Justice assumes a leading and coordinating role in promoting IHL. The study involves an extensive review of pertinent literature on international humanitarian law and international relations, primarily sourced from online publications.