Diol Esters Research Articles

Determination of Free Glycidol and Total Free Monochloropropanediol in Fish and Krill Oil with Simple Aqueous Derivatization and High-Performance Liquid Chromatography-Tandem Mass Spectrometry.

This study introduces a novel method for detecting free glycidol and total free monochloropropanediol (MCPD) in fish and krill oil. Before analysis on high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS), p-(dimethylamino)phenol was used for derivatization of these compounds, enabling the sensitive determination of these contaminants. The sample preparation procedure includes a simple, efficient pretreatment using NaCl aqueous solution extraction and C18 sorbent cleanup (for demulsification), distinguishing glycidol from MCPD under varied reaction conditions for derivatization (weak acidic and strong alkaline aqueous environments). This approach shows broad linearity from 1 to at least 256 ng·mL-1, improved sensitivity compared to standard GC-MS methods, with the limit of detection (LOD) and limit of quantification (LOQ) for MCPD and glycidol in both oil samples verified at 0.5 ng·mL-1 and 1 ng·mL-1, respectively. Different from previous HPLC-MS methods for direct detection of glycidol esters or MCPD esters, this is the first HPLC-MS method used for the detection of free glycidol and total free MCPD in edible oil. Furthermore, this method can be potentially developed for glycidol or monochloropropane diol esters, which is similar to the current official methods adopted for indirect detection of these contaminants in different food matrices. Application of this detection method to real dietary supplements (fish oil and krill oil) revealed MCPD residues in fish oil (maximum detected: 32.78 ng·mL-1) and both MCPD (maximum detected: 2767.3 ng·mL-1) and glycidol (maximum detected: 22.2 ng·mL-1) in krill oil, emphasizing its effectiveness and accuracy for assessing contamination in these supplements.

Trace Metals in Phytoplankton: Requirements, Function, and Composition in Harmful Algal Blooms

In a constantly changing environment brought about by the climate crisis and escalated anthropogenic perturbations driven by the growing population, harmful algal bloom dynamics and their impacts are expected to shift, necessitating adaptive management strategies and comprehensive research efforts. Similar to primary productivity, HABs have been thought to be driven primarily by major nutrients such as N, P, and Si. However, recent investigations on the role and importance of micronutrients as limiting factors in aquatic environments have been highlighted. This paper provides a review of metal and phytoplankton interactions, with a specific emphasis on pertinent information on the influence of trace nutrients on growth, toxin production, and other underlying mechanisms related to the dynamics of HABs. Low to near-depleted levels of essential nutrients, including Fe, Cu, Zn, Se, Mn, Co, and Mo, negatively impact cell growth and proliferation of various marine and freshwater HAB species. However, evidence shows that at elevated levels, these trace elements, along with other non-essential ones, could still cause toxic effects to certain HAB species manifested by decreased photosynthetic activities, oxidative stress, ultrastructure damage, and cyst formation. Interestingly, while elevated levels of these metals mostly result in increased toxin production, Co (i.e., yessotoxins, gymnodimine, and palytoxins) and Mn (i.e., isodomoic acid, okadaic and diol esters) enrichments revealed otherwise. In addition to toxin production, releasing dissolved organic matter (DOM), including dissolved organic carbon (DOC) and humic substances, was observed as an adaptation strategy, since these organic compounds have been proven to chelate metals in the water column, thereby reducing metal-induced toxicity. Whilst current research centers on free metal toxicity of specific essential elements such as Cu and Zn, a comprehensive account of how trace metals contribute to the growth, toxin production, and other metabolic processes under conditions reflective of in situ scenarios of HAB-prone areas would yield new perspectives on the roles of trace metals in HABs. With the growing demands of the global population for food security and sustainability, substantial pressure is exerted on the agriculture and aquaculture sector, highlighting the need for effective communication of information regarding the interactions of macro- and micronutrients with HABs to improve existing policies and practices.

Mitigation of 3-monochloropropane 1,2 diol ester and glycidyl ester in refined oil - A review.

The 3-Monochloropropane-1, 2-diol ester (3-MCPDE) and glycidyl ester (GE) are formed at high processing temperatures with the presence of respective precursors. Both are potentially harmful to humans, causing adverse health impacts including kidney damage, reproductive problems, and increased risk of cancer. The presence of 3-MCPDE and GE in palm oil is of particular concern because of its widespread use by the food industry. There are a variety of methods for reducing 3-MCPDE and GE. For example, water washing eliminates mostly inorganic chlorides that, in turn, reduce the formation of 3-MCPDE. 3-MCPDE has also been reduced by up to 99% using combinations of methods and replacing stripping steam with alcohol-based media. Activated carbon, clay, antioxidants, potassium-based salts, and other post-refining steps have positively lowered GE, ranging from 10 to 99%. Several approaches have been successful in reducing these process contaminants without affecting other quality metrics.

Optimization of water washing for mitigation of 3-monochloropropane 1,2 diol ester in palm oil physical refining process

The presence of 3-monochloropropane-1,2 diol ester (3-MCPDE) and glycidyl ester (GE) in processed palm oils is of concern, as these oils are widely used for edible purposes. The mitigation method studied here optimizes the removal of chloride through water washing of crude palm oil (CPO), to limit the formation of 3-MCPDE. The contaminant removal obtained via washing CPO supports the quantitative findings. By utilizing 5% water in the washing step, water-soluble chlorides in CPO are removed by up to 76%, resulting in a 71% reduction of 3-MCPDE to within statutory limits. In this study, a linear correlation was developed between the chloride and the corresponding 3-MCPDE with a correlation coefficient (R 2) of 0.99. Using the correlations, 1.0 mg/kg of 3-MCPDE in refined, bleached and deodorized palm oil (RBDPO) will be obtained from CPO with 1.2 mg/kg chloride with 7% wash water usage. The study also showed minor GE reduction between 7 and 11% was attained after water washing.

Surface decontamination of radioactive cesium by a reversibly cross-linkable hydrogel using poly(vinyl alcohol) and phenylboronic acid-grafted poly(methyl vinyl ether-alt-mono-sodium maleate)

Wide-area surface decontamination is essential during the sudden release of radioisotopes to the public, such as nuclear accidents or terrorist attacks. A self-generated hydrogel comprising a reversible complex between poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) and phenylboronic acid-grafted poly(methyl vinyl ether-alt-mono-sodium maleate) (PBA–g–PMVE–SM) was developed as a new surface decontamination coating agent to remove radioactive cesium from surfaces. The simultaneous application of PVA and PBA–g–PMVE–SM aqueous polymer solutions containing sulfur–zeolite to contaminated surfaces resulted in the spontaneous formation of a PBA–diol ester bond-based hydrogel. The sulfur–zeolite suspended in the hydrogel selectively removed 137Cs from the contaminated surface and was easily separated from the dissociable used hydrogel. This removal was performed by simple water rinsing without costly incineration to remove the organic materials for final disposal/storage of the radioactive waste, making it suitable for practical wide-area surface decontamination. In radioactive tests, the hydrogel containing sulfur–chabazite (S–CHA) showed substantial 137Cs removal efficiencies of 96.996% for painted cement and 63.404% for cement, which are 2.33 times better than the values for the commercial surface decontamination coating agent DeconGel. Due to its excellent zeolite ion-exchange ability, our hydrogel system has great potential for removing various hazardous contaminants, including radionuclides, from the surface.

Variation profile of diarrhetic shellfish toxins and diol esters derivatives of Prorocentrum lima during growth by high-resolution mass spectrometry

Prorocentrum lima is a widely distributed toxigenic benthic dinoflagellate whose production of diarrhetic shellfish toxins threatens the shellfish industry and seafood safety. Current research primarily assesses the difference between free and post-hydrolysis total toxin methods, ignoring the impact of different detection methods on technical accuracy. After removing matrix interference with SPE extraction, a thorough HRMS strategy was created in this study. Alkaline hydrolysis could release the diol esters and played a crucial role in obtaining an accurate assessment of toxin levels, achieving satisfactory recoveries (74.0–147.0%) and repeatability (relative deviation <12.3%). The HRMS approach evaluated toxin profile variation during the growth of three P. lima strains from China. A total of 24 toxin contents varying in composition, content, and a high proportion were detected. The SHG, HN, and 3XS strains had total toxin contents of 23.3 ± 1.74, 19.8 ± 1.25, and 19.5 ± 1.58 pg cell−1, respectively. The diol esters proportion varied among the strains, with SHG having 58.9–69.9, HN having 75.4–86.5, and 3XS having 91.0–91.7%. The variety of toxins produced by distinct P. lima strains highlighted the significance of this method for appropriately measuring the risks connected with DSTs manufacturing. The proposed approach provides a technical basis for gathering comprehensive and accurate data on the potential risks of P. lima DSTs production, with significant implications for ensuring food safety and preventing harmful toxins from spreading in the marine ecosystem.

Adaptive responses of geographically distinct strains of the benthic dinoflagellate, Prorocentrum lima (Dinophyceae), to varying light intensity and photoperiod

The toxic Prorocentrum lima complex can potentially cause serious harm to the benthos and entire food chain. Studies have revealed physiological differences in strains from different regions related to local environment, while differences in the adaptive responses of P. lima complex should be urgently assessed. Hence, this study explored the adaptive responses to varying light intensities and photoperiods of two P. lima complex strains SHG101 and 3XS34, isolated from the Bohai Sea and the South China Sea, respectively. We found the highest cell density of 7.49 × 104 cells mL−1 recorded in the 3XS strain in the stationary phase with high light intensity exposure. No significant difference was observed in growth rate among SHG groups, however, significant differences were found among 3XS groups ranging from 0.176 to 0.311 d−1. Three key pigments Chl a, Peri, and Fuco accounted for up to 60% of the total pigments. Production and concentrations of pigments and Fv/Fm values exhibit a significant negative correlation with high light intensity and growth. Conversely, total diarrhetic shellfish toxin content and the proportion of diol esters increased to varying degrees after high intensity light exposure, with 3XS strain under high light intensity and a photoperiod of light and darkness (12L:12D) consistently exhibiting the highest levels, finally reaching a maximum (21.6 pg cell−1) at day 28. A shortened photoperiod of high light intensity (8L:16D) resulted in impaired recovery compared with 12L:12D. Furthermore, 3XS showed more delayed and intense adaptive responses, indicating a stronger tolerance compared to SHG. Collectively, these results directly characterized variation in the adaptive responses of geographically distinct strains of P. lima complex, highlighting the previously ignored potential risk diversity of this species.

Jenis dan Konsentrasi Tanah Pengelantang untuk Menurunkan Prekursor Senyawa 3-MCPDE dan GE pada Pemucatan CPO

Refined palm oil contains contaminants such as 3-monochloropropane diol ester (3-MCPDE) and glycidyl ester (GE) which are formed from diacylglycerol (DAG) and chloride (Cl) as precursors during processing. There is a need to control the levels of precursors especially during the bleaching stage using selected bleaching earth (BE). Reducing the number of precursors after the bleaching stage will minimize the formation of 3-MCPDE and GE in bleached palm oil (BPO) for the next refinery stage. The research consisted of three stages: (1) characterization of raw materials consisting of CPO, BE types 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5; (2) study on the effect of BE type; and (3) study on the concentration effect of selected BE for reducing DAG and Cl by chemical analysis of oil quality. The results showed that degummed palm oil (DPO) contained DAG of 6.70%, free fatty acid 5.66%, carotene 424.31 mg/kg, P 20.30 mg/kg, and Fe &lt;0.021 mg/kg. The five types of BE have different physicochemical properties on which the effect will be seen on BPO. The second stage results showed that BE-4 was selected as the most potential BE. Using BE-4 of 2.5% was proven to reduce total Cl as 3-MCPDE precursors in the resulted BPO sample. The Cl level decreased to 3.05 mg/kg with the largest decrease percentage of 55.80% compared to DPO sample. BE-4 concentration of 2.5% has been able to withstand and prevent the increase of DAG as a precursor to GE contaminants during bleaching process.&#x0D; &#x0D; Keywords: 3-monokloropropanadiol ester, chloride, diacylglycerol, glycidyl ester, palm oil

Streamlined Chemoenzymatic Synthesis of Cyclic Peptides by Non-ribosomal Peptide Cyclases.

Macrocyclization improves the pharmaceutical properties of peptides; however, regio- and chemoselective intramolecular cyclizations remain challenging. Here we developed a streamlined chemoenzymatic approach to synthesize cyclic peptides by exploiting non-ribosomal peptide (NRP) cyclases. Linear peptides linked to the resin through a C-terminal diol ester functionality are synthesized on a solid support, to circumvent the installation of leaving groups to the peptidic substrates in the liquid phase which often triggers undesirable epimerization. Cleavage of the resin-bound peptides yielded the diol esters with sufficient purity to be readily cyclized in a head-to-tail manner by SurE, a representative penicillin-binding protein-type thioesterase (PBP-type TE). Explorations of homologous wild-type enzymes as well as rational protein engineering have broadened the scope of the enzymatic macrolactamization. This method will potentially accelerate the exploitation of NRP cyclases as biocatalysts.

Diterpenoids and p-methoxycinnamic acid diol esters from Kaempferia saraburiensis Picheans. (Zingiberaceae): Structural assignment of saraburol and their biological activities

Five undescribed compounds, including three diterpenoids namely, saraburol, saraburanes A and B, and two p-methoxycinnamic acid monoterpene diol esters, named E/Z-saraburinic esters, together with ten known oxygenated isopimarane diterpenoids, were isolated from the whole plant of Kaempferia saraburiensis Picheans. Among these compounds, saraburol possesses an unusual 6/9/6 tricyclic ring system bearing a 1,3-dioxonane-4-one scaffold, which is rarely found in natural products. The structure of isolated compounds was elucidated by spectroscopic methods, including HRESIMS, FTIR, 1D and 2D-NMR, and by comparison with published data, and their absolute configurations were determined by comparison of experimental with calculated ECD spectra and hydrolysis reaction. Using gauge-independent atomic orbital (GIAO) NMR shift calculations coupled with DP4+ probability analyses, biogenetic considerations, and optical rotation allowed for the complete characterization of saraburol. A plausible biosynthetic pathway for saraburol and saraburane A was proposed. The cytotoxicity result indicated that E-saraburinic ester exhibited the most potent activity with an IC50 value of 12.0 μM against MOLT-3 cells with a selectivity index of 12.5. Saraburane B exhibited the most potent activity against Gram-positive bacteria strain Staphylococcus epidermidis with MIC (MBC) value of 25 (50) μg/mL.

Optimization of Crude Palm (Elaeis guineensis) Oil Bleaching using Zeolite-Fe by Response Surface Methodology

A carcinogenic 3-monochloropropane 1, 2 diol ester (3-MCPD ester) can be formed during processing crude palm oil (CPO). Chlorine is one of the precursors for the formation of 3-MCPD esters. This study aimed to optimize the bleaching conditions using zeolite-Fe for reducing chlorine concentration by the Response Surface Methodology (RSM) and further evaluate the characteristics of the bleached CPO. Factors such as bleaching time, zeolite-Fe concentration, and bleaching temperature were evaluated and further optimized. The results showed that Fe in the modified zeolite-Fe increased about 71.89% compared to natural zeolite. Zeolite-Fe concentration, bleaching time, and bleaching temperature had a significant effect on chlorine adsorption. The optimum bleaching process was obtained at a zeolite-Fe concentration of 5% (w/w) and bleaching temperature of 80 °C for 30 minutes. Bleached CPO had a chlorine concentration of 25 ± 1 ppb, carotenoid of 467.70 ± 13.71 ppm, and a DOBI (Deterioration Of Bleachability Index) value of 2.17 ± 0.01 R.

Thermal properties, oxidative stability, and frying applicability of highly pure soybean‐based diacylglycerol oil

Diacylglycerols are appreciated for their unique nutritional and pharmaceutical values. This study compared the thermal characteristics, oxidative stability, and frying applicability of a high-purity soybean-based diacylglycerol oil (SDO, 98.07%) and soybean oil (SO, 98.80%) that had similar fatty acid compositions. SDO showed similarity in solid fat content (SFC) at 35–40°C, whereas it showed differences in crystallization behaviors compared with SO. Specifically, SDO had crystals mainly in β form and its onset temperature of initial crystallization shifted to higher-melting temperature region. During thermal degradation, the contents of linoleic acid and linolenic acid in SDO decreased significantly lower than in SO, indicating higher oxidative stability of SDO. Potato strips and chicken drumsticks deep fried in SDO showed more desirable textures compared with those deep fried in SO. Glycidyl esters and 2(3)-monochloropropane-1,3(2)-diol esters were not detected in SDO after deep frying. Therefore, SDO serves as a potential alternative to SO for deep frying in food industry. Practical applications This study analyzed the physicochemical characteristics of highly pure soybean-based diacylglycerol oils comprehensively, and explored their thermal stability and applicability for food deep frying. The informative data and exploration would contribute to the potential utilization of soybean oil-based diacylglycerol oils in food processing.

When metabolic prowess is too much of a good thing: how carbon catabolite repression and metabolic versatility impede production of esterified \u03b1,\u03c9-diols in Pseudomonas putida KT2440

BackgroundMedium-chain-length α,ω-diols (mcl-diols) are important building blocks in polymer production. Recently, microbial mcl-diol production from alkanes was achieved in E. coli (albeit at low rates) using the alkane monooxygenase system AlkBGTL and esterification module Atf1. Owing to its remarkable versatility and conversion capabilities and hence potential for enabling an economically viable process, we assessed whether the industrially robust P. putida can be a suitable production organism of mcl-diols.ResultsAlkBGTL and Atf1 were successfully expressed as was shown by oxidation of alkanes to alkanols, and esterification to alkyl acetates. However, the conversion rate was lower than that by E. coli, and not fully to diols. The conversion was improved by using citrate instead of glucose as energy source, indicating that carbon catabolite repression plays a role. By overexpressing the activator of AlkBGTL-Atf1, AlkS and deleting Crc or CyoB, key genes in carbon catabolite repression of P. putida increased diacetoxyhexane production by 76% and 65%, respectively. Removing Crc/Hfq attachment sites of mRNAs resulted in the highest diacetoxyhexane production. When the intermediate hexyl acetate was used as substrate, hexanol was detected. This indicated that P. putida expressed esterases, hampering accumulation of the corresponding esters and diesters. Sixteen putative esterase genes present in P. putida were screened and tested. Among them, Est12/K was proven to be the dominant one. Deletion of Est12/K halted hydrolysis of hexyl acetate and diacetoxyhexane. As a result of relieving catabolite repression and preventing the hydrolysis of ester, the optimal strain produced 3.7 mM hexyl acetate from hexane and 6.9 mM 6-hydroxy hexyl acetate and diacetoxyhexane from hexyl acetate, increased by 12.7- and 4.2-fold, respectively, as compared to the starting strain.ConclusionsThis study shows that the metabolic versatility of P. putida, and the associated carbon catabolite repression, can hinder production of diols and related esters. Growth on mcl-alcohol and diol esters could be prevented by deleting the dominant esterase. Carbon catabolite repression could be relieved by removing the Crc/Hfq attachment sites. This strategy can be used for efficient expression of other genes regulated by Crc/Hfq in Pseudomonas and related species to steer bioconversion processes.

Aerobic Liquor Washing Improves the Quality of Crude Palm Oil by Reducing Free Fatty Acids and Chloride Contents

AbstractThe presence of free fatty acids (FFA) and chloride contents in crude palm oil is not desirable because they have an impact on oil quality and food safety. This work presents a method to reduce these compounds by washing the crude palm oil (CPO) with treated aerobic liquor (AL). The effects of process parameters on the reduction of FFA and chloride in CPO and the resultant 3‐monochloropropane‐1,2 diol ester (3‐MCPDE) formed after refining are investigated. The results show that the AL dosage, initial FFA content, mixing speed, and duration have significant influence on the reduction of FFA in the CPO. Meanwhile, the chloride content is reduced by approximately 50% regardless of the AL dosage used. Consequently, the 3‐MCPDE content in the oil after refining is up to 53% lower than that of the refined oil produced from the untreated CPO. Furthermore, an oil recovery above 97% can be achieved after the AL‐washing step. The implementation strategy of this method in the palm oil mills has also been proposed. In conclusion, an effective and sustainable method for in situ improvements of the quality and food safety of palm oil has been developed without the need for additional water or chemical.Practical Applications: Treated aerobic liquor can be used to wash the CPO in palm oil mill for in situ reductions of FFA and chloride contents in CPO to improve the oxidative stability of CPO. The lower content of chlorides in CPO could mitigate the formation of 3‐MCPDE during refining, thus improving the food safety of palm oil. This method can readily be implemented by the industry and it is sustainable because it does not require the use of additional process water or chemical.

Kinetics of enzyme-catalysed desymmetrisation of prochiral substrates: product enantiomeric excess is not always constant.

The kinetics of enzymatic desymmetrisation were analysed for the most common kinetic mechanisms: ternary complex ordered (prochiral ketone reduction); ping-pong second (ketone amination, diol esterification, desymmetrisation in the second half reaction); ping-pong first (diol ester hydrolysis) and ping-pong both (prochiral diacids). For plausible values of enzyme kinetic parameters, the product enantiomeric excess (ee) can decline substantially as the reaction proceeds to high conversion. For example, an ee of 0.95 at the start of the reaction can decline to less than 0.5 at 95% of equilibrium conversion, but for different enzyme properties it will remain almost unchanged. For most mechanisms a single function of multiple enzyme rate constants (which can be termed ee decline parameter, eeDP) accounts for the major effect on the tendency for the ee to decline. For some mechanisms, the concentrations or ratios of the starting materials have an important influence on the fall in ee. For the application of enzymatic desymmetrisation it is important to study if and how the product ee declines at high conversion.

Synthesis of polyester by means of polycondensation of diol ester and dicarboxylic acid ester through ester–ester exchange reaction

AbstractBased on our finding that the ester‐ester exchange reaction between butyl benzoate and ethyl 4‐phenylbenzoate in the presence of a metal alkoxide is faster than the ester‐alcohol exchange reaction of butyl benzoate and ethanol, we investigated the synthesis of polyester through ester‐ester exchange reaction under various conditions. The polycondensation of diol formate and methyl dicarboxylate in the presence of a catalytic amount of potassium tert‐butoxide (tBuOK) in diglyme at 120 °C under reduced pressure (90–100 Torr) afforded high‐molecular‐weight polyesters. Methyl dicarboxylate containing an amino group could be used for this polycondensation, although the corresponding diacid chloride containing an amino group was not isolable. The ester‐ester exchange reaction could proceed even at the polyester backbone, and the reaction of poly(1,12‐dodecamethylene isophthalate) (PEs1) with poly(ε‐caprolactone) (PCL) in the presence of tBuOK at 140 °C afforded a copolymer PEs1‐stat‐PCL, the structure of which was confirmed by 13C NMR spectroscopy and DSC thermal analysis. A similar copolymer was also obtained by the polycondensation of dodecane‐1,12‐diol formate and dimethyl isophthalate in the presence of PCL and tBuOK at 120 °C under reduced pressure.

Aerobic-liquor treatment improves the quality and deep-frying performance of refined palm oil

Deep-frying is a popular method for food preparation because it improves the taste and sensory of food. Among the vegetable oils, palm oil is one of the commonly used oils for deep-frying application. During deep-frying, some of the oil would be absorbed by the food and subsequently be consumed together with the food. Hence, the quality and stability of the oil used for deep-frying are of critical food safety considerations. To address this issue, we produced refined palm oil from crude palm oil which has been treated with an aerobic liquor (AL) generated from a palm oil mill. The result shows that the refined palm oil produced from AL-treated CPO (aRPO) has improved quality, in particular the 3-monochloropropane-1,2 diol ester (3-MCPDE) and the glycidyl ester (GE) reduced by 58% and 46%, respectively. After 30 cycles of deep-frying, the used aRPO contained 68% lower FFA content, 13% lower polar content, and 43% lower 3-MCPDE content compared to the conventionally produced refined palm oil (RPO). Furthermore, the aRPO has a higher smoke-point and a higher resistance to darkening compared to the RPO. As a result, the fries prepared using aRPO have lower 3-MCPDE content and they have a better appearance and were less greasy when compared to the fries prepared using RPO. Overall, AL-treatment of CPO is a feasible method to improve the quality and deep-frying performance of refined palm oil and it could readily be adopted by the industry because it is simple and sustainable.

Chloride reduction by water washing of crude palm oil to assist in 3-monochloropropane-1, 2 diol ester (3-MCPDE) mitigation

ABSTRACT Chloride reduction in crude palm oil (CPO) of greater than 80% was achieved with water washing conducted at 90°C. Inorganic chloride content in CPO was largely removed through washing, with no significant reduction in the organic chloride. Phosphorous content of CPO reduced by 20%, while trace elements such as calcium, magnesium and iron were also reduced in the washing operation. The 3-MCPDE formed in the refined, bleached and deodorised palm oil displayed (RBDPO) a linear relationship with the chloride level in washed CPO, which could be represented by the equation y = 0.91x, where y is 3-MCPDE and x represents the chloride in RBDPO refined from washed CPO. In plant scale trials using 5% water at 90°C, mild acidification of the wash water at 0.05% reduced chloride by average 76% in washed CPO. Utilising selected bleaching earths, controlled wash water temperature and wash water volume produced low chloride levels in RBDPO. Chloride content less than 1.4 mg kg−1 in plant RBDPO production was achieved, through physical refining of washed CPO containing less than 2 mg kg−1 chloride and would correspond to 3-MCPDE levels of 1.25 mg kg−1 in RBDPO. The 3-MCPDE reduced further to 1.1 mg kg−1 as the chloride level of washed CPO decreased below 1.8 mg kg−1. Chloride has been shown to facilitate the 3-MCPDE formation and its removal in lab scale washing study has yielded lower 3-MCPDE levels formed in RBDPO. In actual plant operations using washed CPO, 3-MCPDE levels below 1.25 mg kg−1 were achieved consistently in RBDPO.

Influence of Industrial Processing on Physiochemical Characteristics of Soybean Oil and Deodorizer Distillates

The present study aimed to evaluate the impact of industrial processing (neutralization/degumming, bleaching, and deodorization) on physicochemical characteristics of soybean oil and soybean oil deodorizer distillate (SBO-DD) collected from two different industries. The substantial impact of processing was observed on all physicochemical parameters except the iodine value (IV) and saponification value (SV). Gas chromatography-flame ionization detector (GC-FID) and Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analytical techniques were used for the quantification of individual fatty acids, sterols, and 3-monochloropropane diol (3-MCPD) ester. Among the fatty acids, palmitic and linoleic acids were present at higher concentrations in all processing stages. Among sterols, β-sitosterol was found to be higher (25.65 and#181;g/g) in crude soybean oil and reduced to 16.44 and#181;g/g after processing till the final deodorization stage. 3-MCPD ester was developed during the neutralization/degumming process and further increased during bleaching and deodorization up to 315 and#181;g/kg, respectively. SBO-DD was found to be a rich source of total and individual sterols as compared to crude or processed soybean oil. High free fatty acid (FFA) level in deodorizer distillate indicated that SBO-DD is a potential source of biodiesel production.

Influence of Industrial Processing on Physiochemical Characteristics of Soybean Oil and Deodorizer Distillates

The present study aimed to evaluate the impact of industrial processing (neutralization/degumming, bleaching, and deodorization) on physicochemical characteristics of soybean oil and soybean oil deodorizer distillate (SBO-DD) collected from two different industries. The substantial impact of processing was observed on all physicochemical parameters except the iodine value (IV) and saponification value (SV). Gas chromatography-flame ionization detector (GC-FID) and Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analytical techniques were used for the quantification of individual fatty acids, sterols, and 3-monochloropropane diol (3-MCPD) ester. Among the fatty acids, palmitic and linoleic acids were present at higher concentrations in all processing stages. Among sterols, β-sitosterol was found to be higher (25.65 and#181;g/g) in crude soybean oil and reduced to 16.44 and#181;g/g after processing till the final deodorization stage. 3-MCPD ester was developed during the neutralization/degumming process and further increased during bleaching and deodorization up to 315 and#181;g/kg, respectively. SBO-DD was found to be a rich source of total and individual sterols as compared to crude or processed soybean oil. High free fatty acid (FFA) level in deodorizer distillate indicated that SBO-DD is a potential source of biodiesel production.