Dilemma Theory Research Articles

Table of Contents

AbstractBoard Impact on Student SuccessOn a Personal Note: Welcome to Caroline Oliver Board Leadership's New Managing EditorBoards and the Black SwanThe Owners' DilemmaTheory, Practice, and “Blitz” Policy DevelopmentWhat Policy Governance Means to Me: An Interview with Rebecca Jamieson

The security dilemma and ethnic conflict: toward a dynamic and integrative theory of ethnic conflict

AbstractI critically examine the existing literature on the security dilemma in ethnic conflict, thus laying part of the foundation for constructing a dynamic and integrative theory of ethnic conflict. I show that many attempts to apply the security dilemma to the understanding of ethnic conflict have been based on an imprecise and often mistaken understanding of the concept. I then emphasise that the security dilemma theory and the broader spiral model constitute a dynamic, versatile and powerful theory of strategic interaction that captures some general dynamics leading to the outbreak of war. As such, the security dilemma theory and the broader spiral model, when properly understood, can serve as part of the foundation of a dynamic and integrative theory of ethnic conflict, and such a theory will be able to integrate many diverse understandings of ethnic conflict from different schools of International Relations (IR) theory. I show the feasibility and the utility of such a theory.

Mitigating resisting forces to achieve the collaboration‐enabled supply chain

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to address how companies mitigate existing forces to achieve the collaboration enabled supply chain (SC).Design/methodology/approachSeven key theories were used to provide insight into the theoretical framework for the creation of the collaboration‐enabled SC: contingency theory, the resource‐based view of the firm, the relational view of the firm, force field theory, constituency‐based theory, social dilemma theory, and resource‐advantage theory. An exploratory cross‐sectional survey was conducted at two different points in time – a six‐year period in between. The survey targeted three different functional areas – logistics, manufacturing, and sourcing – to compare and contrast functional perceptions of barriers and bridges to collaboration.FindingsCompanies are beginning to pursue greater collaboration, however, managers are often stymied in their pursuit of collaborative business models. The data suggest that the challenge is not the existence of a single barrier to collaboration, but one of accumulation. As the many resistors reinforce each other, the change needed to increase collaboration is avoided. To overcome these challenges, the findings suggest that a comprehensive and carefully executed collaboration strategy is needed to help a company profitably deliver high levels of customer satisfaction. Those companies that succeed achieve substantial, documentable benefits.Practical implicationsThe findings reveal that developing a collaboration‐enabled business model is very difficult. Therefore, managers must carefully evaluate their companies' motivation and readiness to pursue a collaboration‐enabled SC, consider whether they can generate momentum for sustained change, and ascertain whether they can persist when benefits are slow to emerge.Originality/valueThis study is both longitudinal and cross‐functional and leads to a better understanding of how to manage, change, and create a collaborative decision‐making environment.

Achieving strategic innovation through dilemma reconciliation

The past several decades have witnessed the growth of a stream of research that emphasises the importance of strategic innovation. Such literature reviews the generation of effective and novel strategies as the key to create and sustain business success. Strategic innovation can be defined as the formulation of a strategy that breaks industry conventions and alters competition rules. This paper focuses on employing dilemma reconciliation as a means of achieving strategic innovation, a concept that is still in its formative stage. It surveys the existing literature on both strategic innovation and dilemma theory. Subsequently, it presents how two UK companies have put such concept into use in practice.

To buy or not to buy? A social dilemma perspective on green buying

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to draw on social dilemma theory and reference group theory to explain the attitude‐behavior inconsistency in environmental consumerism. This research seeks to better understand why, despite concern towards the environment (attitude), consumers fail to purchase environmentally friendly or green products (behavior).Design/methodology/approachA survey instrument was developed that used scales to measure eight independent and one dependent variable. In addition, socio‐demographic data were also collected about the study participants. To discriminate between green and non‐green buyers, classification with discriminant analysis was used.FindingsThe framework presented contributes to the environmental consumerism literature by framing the attitude‐behavior gap as a social dilemma and draws on reference group theory to identify individual factors to help understand the gap and suggest ways in which to bridge it. Results from the study reveal that several characteristics of the individual – trust, in‐group identity, expectation of others' cooperation and perceived efficacy – were significant in differentiating between “non‐green” and “green” buyers.Practical implicationsThe results of the study offer several managerial implications. First, marketers should reinforce the role trust plays in solidifying collective action. Second, because of the strong influence of reference groups in green buying, marketing communications managers should use spokespeople who are relatable. Third, the study showed that expectation of others' cooperation significantly identifies green buyers. Fourth, to address the perception of personal efficacy, it is important that green marketers emphasize the difference that individual action makes for the collective good.Originality/valueThe research draws on both social dilemma and reference group theories to investigate the determinants of and the mechanisms to explain the rationale behind the attitude‐behavior gap as it pertains to a specific environmental issue – energy conservation.

Why Do Ethnonational Conflicts Reach Different Degrees of Violence? Insights from Kosovo, Macedonia, and Bulgaria during the 1990s

Why did ethnonational conflicts reach different degrees of violence during the 1990s: high in Kosovo, middle-ranged in Macedonia, and low in Bulgaria? This article analyzes the relationship between the Albanians of Macedonia and Kosovo, the Turks of Bulgaria, and their respective states. Challenging democratization and security dilemma theories, it argues that the relative changes in minority rights compared to the communist period, rather than the absolute scope of minority rights granted by the new constitutions, created a political threshold early in the transition period that propelled causal chains of minority–majority interactions that led to different degrees of ethnonational violence. Combined with the status change, governmental strategies of co-optation, or coercion prompted the minorities to pursue their demands either through the institutions of the state (Bulgaria), through clandestine activities (Kosovo), or through a combination of both (Macedonia). This article also argues that a timely governmental response to nonterritorial minority demands prevented them from expanding to become territorial and from triggering higher levels of violence.

The Puzzling Lack of a Social Dilemma

Among theories dealing with welfare state policy development, theories of social dilemmas and of key actor-group influence over government policy formation are increasingly holding sway. These theories emphasise that few would risk being unilateral contributors to the systems without any compensating elements. Thus, selective, means-testing systems or stingy universal systems in which some citizens ‘contribute’ while others ‘receive’ may risk being regarded as unfair in the eyes of the contributors in spite of the redistributive intentions. The degree of welfare state programme ‘fairness’ and reciprocity would, then, explain the degree of support for the welfare state. However, by using data from the United Kingdom and Sweden, this article will, first, claim that the social dilemma research turns a blind eye to the fact that public opinion in general as well as key groups appears to be able to yield its support even when welfare states contain distinctly selective elements and low-compensation universal programmes. Second, the article will elaborate on the confusion surrounding welfare state taxonomies as one plausible reason for why social dilemma theories may risk missing the target. Finally, the article will elaborate on the future of the welfare state as we know it. The main points are that given the fact that the welfare states in the two countries really already are conglomerates of different types of welfare programmes and, given a weak relationship between key groups and policy formation, the most likely future for the welfare state is that policies will continue to follow mixed paths.

Towards a framework for the elicitation of dilemmas

This paper covers the main findings of the doctoral research that was concerned with seeking to extend aspects of dilemma theory. In professional practice, the Trompenaars Hampden-Turner Dilemma Reconciliation ProcessTM is a vehicle delivering dilemma theory in application. It informs a manager or leader on how to explore the dilemmas they face, how to reconcile the tensions that result, and how to structure the action steps for implementing the reconciled solutions. This vehicle forms the professional practice of the author who seeks to bring more rigor to consulting practice and thereby also contribute to theory development in the domain. The critical review of dilemma theory reveals that previous authors are inconsistent and variously invalid in their use of the terms ‘dilemma theory,’ ‘dilemma methodology,’ ‘dilemma process,’ ‘dilemma reconciliation,’ etc., and therefore an attempt is made to resolve these inconsistencies by considering whether ‘dilemmaism’ at the meta-level might be positioned as a new paradigm of inquiry for (management) research that embodies ontological, epistemological, and methodical premises that frame an approach to the resolution of real world business problems in (multi) disciplinary; (multi) functional and (multi) cultural business environments. This research offers contributions to knowledge, professional practice and theory development from the exploration of the SPID model as a way to make the elicitation of dilemmas more rigorous and structured and in the broader context of exploring ‘dilemmaism’ as a new paradigm of inquiry.

Information Exchange With Shared Databases as a Social Dilemma

When group members exchange information via shared databases people are often reluctant to contribute information they possess. This is explained by the fact that this kind of information exchange represents a social dilemma. This article applies critical concepts of dilemma theory to the interpretation of database information exchange as a social dilemma and tests their effects experimentally. A prestudy with the experimental task ensures that people perceive database information exchange as a social dilemma, and two experiments investigate three factors influencing this dilemma: (a) a person’s meta-knowledge about the importance of his information for the other group members, (b) a use-related bonus system that rewards contribution of important information, and (c) costs incurred by the contribution of important or less important information. As dependent variables people’s contribution behavior as well as their subjective perception of the dilemma structure are considered. The results show that metaknowledge enhances the quality of contributions, especially in combination with a use-related bonus system, whereas increased contribution costs influence the contribution behavior negatively.

Taking ideology out of ethics: from failed business strategies to new cross‐cultural platforms

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to engage and provoke thought amongst strategists that their frameworks are bound by their cultural mindsets. The paper aims to explore the need for a new ethical model that accounts for the cultural differences of the participants from Western and Eastern EuropeDesign/methodology/approachThis paper applies the varied expertise of the three authors to provide an exploratory study of ethics and strategy within different cultural frameworks. Dilemma theory, the chosen methodology that has been recognized by cross‐cultural management scholars, is applied to illustrate the need to resolve a cultural problem between a Latvian and Russian as a means to creating a unified strategic ethical framework.FindingsThe demonstration of Russia's cultural past perceptions of the west illustrates the need for crafting a new ethical platform that allows for all cross‐cultural participants to apply dilemma theory as a prescriptive approach to unite their differences into a new strategic framework.Research limitations/implicationsThe main limitation of the study is related to the methodology. In further research longitudinal data could be potentially collected and mined to actually elicit the real dilemmas existing between those participants from the west, the Baltics and Russia that are involved in the strategy formulation process that creates the proposed ethical framework.Practical implicationsMany of the people representing companies in the Baltic States are finding themselves reconciling the cultural differences between themselves, members of neighboring Baltic States, Russia, European countries, the USA and Asia. Special attention should be paid to the importance of being a trans‐culturally competent manager in the Baltics by building the bridge from the West to the East.Originality/valueThe main value of the paper is the challenge that it provides to all western management scholars to think outside their own mindset when endeavouring to lecture the Eastern European mentality on how to be “ethical”. Moreover, it provides Russian management scholars with a voice and argues the need for a new platform that incorporates their cultural values and thinking.

Information, Trust, and Power: The Impact of Conflict Histories, Policy Regimes, and Political Institutions on Terrorism

When does a country's history of conflict encourage terrorism, and when is its legacy a deterrent? When does a government's policy of appeasing terrorism decrease terrorism, and when is a policy of repression effective? What sorts of political institutions turn terrorism into legitimate dissent? These questions have troubled the contentious politics literature from Gurr (1970) to Lichbach (1995) to McAdam, Tarrow, and Tilly (2001). The issues are fundamental. Contentious politics sometimes breeds terrorism, and sometimes forestalls it. Appeasement, as does repression, sometimes works, and sometimes fails. Some states seem constitutionally vulnerable to terrorism, and others configuratively immune. Even though conflict histories, policy regimes, and political institutions thus figure prominently in narrative accounts and statistical analyses of terrorism, nearly three decades of scholarly and policy reflection have not located the underlying mechanisms behind the crucial conflict history–terrorism, policy regime–terrorism, and political institutions–terrorism relationships. Two rational choice models—the bargaining theory of war and the rebel's dilemma theory of dissent—offer startlingly divergent understandings of the mechanisms involved.10 To appreciate the differences and their significance, consider the two questions pondered by protagonists in an enduring conflict vulnerable to terrorism: Why can't we all get along? is the foundational question of an idealistic form of rational choice theory—the bargaining theory of war—that explores cooperation among protagonists. Whether peaceful bargains can be struck depends on the ability of participants to extract relevant information. Unobservable private information promotes conflict, and revealable public information promotes cooperation. Histories, policies, and institutions that increase transparency and minimize secrets allow actors to coordinate expectations, thereby reducing the false expectations—the under- and overestimated power resources—that are responsible for war. Whether bargains can be struck also depends on protagonists' trusting one another. Participants must be able to make …

Developing a Dilemma Model to Diagnose and Overcome Organizational Cultural Barriers to Implement Knowledge Management

Knowledge Management has recently been recognised as a basis of competitive advantage by many organizations around the world. However the rate of success of projects to implement knowledge management has been disappointing based on surveys conducted over the past five years. One of the major reasons for the failures has been identified as the barriers due to organizational culture. Research conducted in identifying cultural blocks to knowledge management using conventional research methods such as surveys has not provided very satisfactory insights. Professor Charles Hampden-Turner and Dr. Fons Trompenaars have successfully used ‘dilemma theory’ to identify dimensions of organizational culture for many years. Their research has helped managers to build cross-cultural competence in organizations in spite of conflicting values to implement successful business strategies. They have recently determined some dimensions of organizational culture, based on dilemmas that can inhibit the implementation of knowledge management in organizations. If a model capable of identifying these dimensions based on dilemmas faced by managers can be developed it would benefit knowledge management practitioners and managers to successfully implement knowledge management projects.

Simultaneous hermaphrodites reproducing in pairs self-fertilize some of their eggs: an experimental test of predictions of mixed-mating and Hermaphrodite's Dilemma theory.

Theory predicts (1) that mixed-mating systems (i.e. reproduction through both selfing and outcrossing) should usually not evolve and (2) that reproducing simultaneous hermaphrodites should be in a conflict over the preferred sexual role (The Hermaphrodite's Dilemma). In an in vitro system with the endoparasitic cestode Schistocephalus solidus, a simultaneous hermaphrodite, we tested predictions of both the mixed-mating and the Hermaphrodite's Dilemma theory. Using microsatellite markers, we measured the proportion of selfed offspring and the total reproductive output of each worm within pairs varying in mean weight and weight difference. Worms produced more outbred offspring not only with increasing total weight of the pair, but also with decreasing weight difference between the two paired worms. These results suggest: (1) that this parasite species reproduces by mixed-mating, which may be maintained by stochastic density fluctuations in the definitive host and hence unpredictability of self reproduction and (2) reproductive conflict may prevent worm pairs from achieving an optimal intermediate selfing rate.

The Real World Guide to Psychotherapy Practice

The Real World Guide to Psychotherapy Practice

Withholding Consumption: A Social Dilemma Perspective on Consumer Boycotts

This article draws on social dilemma theory and reference group theory to understand the individual boycott decision and tests the predictions stemming from this conceptualization in two experiments. Consistent with our predictions, consumers' likelihood of participating in both economic and social-issue boycotts is jointly determined by their perceptions of the boycott's likelihood of success, their susceptibility to normative social influences, and the costs they incur in boycotting. Consumers' success perceptions are, in turn, determined by their expectations of overall participation and efficacy, as well as the message frame inherent in proboycott communications. Two key determinants of consumers' boycotting costs are their preference for the boycotted product and their access to its substitutes. More specifically, consumers who are more susceptible to the normative influence exerted by the reference group of potential boycotters are more influenced by expected overall participation rates in their boycott likelihood.

Building cross-cultural competence: how to create wealth from conflicting values

Introduction. Universalism-Particularism: The Dilemma. Reconciling Universalism and Particularism: Stories and Cases. Individualism-Communitarianism: The Dilemma. Reconciling Individualism and Communitarianism: Stories and Cases. Specificity-Diffuseness: The Dilemma. Reconciling Specificity and Diffuseness: Stories and Cases. Achieved-Ascribed Status: The Dilemma. Reconciling Achieved with Ascribed Status: Stories and Cases. Inner Direction versus Outer Direction: The Dilemma. Reconciling Inner and Outer Direction: Stories and Cases. Sequential and Synchronous Time: The Dilemma. Reconciling Sequential and Synchronous Time: Stories and Cases. Appendix 1 - Dilemma Theory and Its Origins. Appendix 2 - Exercises in Reconciliation. Appendix 3 - Measuring Transcultural Competence: Old and New. Questionnaries. Appendix 4 - The Space Between Dimensions. Bibliography. Filmography. Index.

Effects of the awareness of social dilemmas on advertising budget-setting: A scenario study

In this study, which examines the dynamics involved in setting advertising budgets, the social dilemma theory was applied in an attempt to understand the interdependency problems of advertisers in their investment decisions. In an experiment, a budget decision was made for a company after a period in which the company's market shares had either increased, decreased, or remained stable. Subjects were pre-screened with regard to their social value orientation (cooperative vs competitive). Half of the subjects were informed of the threat of social dilemmas and of the possible negative consequences; the other half were not informed. Budget decisions can be predicted on the basis of subjects' social value orientations and the awareness of the threat of social dilemmas. Subjects with a relatively strong competitive orientation are more zealous in setting their budgets. However, the awareness variable shows the strongest effects, especially in conditions when subjects experience a declining market share. It was concluded that knowledge about the dynamics of social dilemmas may prevent advertisers from a competitive reaction to the loss of share and may thus prevent them from becoming trapped in a competitive (social) dilemma.

TRUST, MONITORING, AND COOPERATIVE BEHAVIOR IN MIXED-MOTIVE INTERGROUP NEGOTIATIONS.

Intergroup negotiations, including manager/employee relations, joint ventures, and corporate budgeting processes among others, are an important element of organizational life. Social dilemma theory...

Spirals, Security, and Stability in East Asia

In his article “China, the U.S.-Japan Alliance, and the Security Dilemma in East Asia,”1 Thomas Christensen argues that East Asia is primed for conoict. He contends that security dilemma theory, and two other exacerbating factors, predict spirals of tension between China and Japan. First, Chinese historical memories of Japanese aggression make China especially fearful of increases in Japanese military activities. Second, because China regards Taiwan as a renegade province rather than an independent country, the acquisition of even defensive weapons by Taiwan or Japan (a potential Taiwanese ally) threatens China and may provoke spirals. Based on these arguments, Christensen concludes that the United States should limit the Japanese role in the U.S.-Japan alliance. For example, the United States should not codevelop theater missile defense (TMD) with Japan because this could trigger spirals between Japan and China (p. 75). In this letter I argue that Christensen greatly overstates the potential for conoict in the region. First, I argue that he misapplies security dilemma theory to East Asia. Security dilemma theory actually predicts stability in the region, not dangerous spirals. Second, I show that Christensen’s application of security dilemma theory is falsiaed by evidence from the past afty years. This evidence conarms my argument that spirals are unlikely in East Asia, despite historical grievances and the issue of Taiwanese sovereignty. The implication of my analysis is that U.S. alliance policies in East Asia need not be hamstrung by fears that the region is primed for conoict. Japan can and should be a full and active member of the alliance that guarantees its security.

The Effects of Feedback Equivocality on Escalation of Commitment: An Empirical Investigation of Decision Dilemma Theory1

The effects of feedback equivocality on escalation of commitment were examined in a laboratory study. Subjects had multiple opportunities to allocate money to market a software product. During the initial phase, subjects received feedback that was of either low or high equivocality. Half of the subjects in each equivocality level were given a standard by which to judge the feedback. In the second phase, all subjects received negative feedback. Consistent with Bowen's (1987) decision dilemma theory, subjects who received low equivocality feedback did not escalate allocations, and subjects who received high equivocal feedback escalated allocations. The presence of a standard or goal attenuated escalation. These results are consonant with a dynamic, temporally based account of escalation and are discussed in a synthesis of the literatures in behavior analysis, economics, forecasting, and psychology.