Digit Span Task Research Articles

An Electroencephalography Connectomic Profile of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder.

The authors sought to identify brain regions whose frequency-specific, orthogonalized resting-state EEG power envelope connectivity differs between combat veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and healthy combat-exposed veterans, and to determine the behavioral correlates of connectomic differences. The authors first conducted a connectivity method validation study in healthy control subjects (N=36). They then conducted a two-site case-control study of veterans with and without PTSD who were deployed to Iraq and/or Afghanistan. Healthy individuals (N=95) and those meeting full or subthreshold criteria for PTSD (N=106) underwent 64-channel resting EEG (eyes open and closed), which was then source-localized and orthogonalized to mitigate effects of volume conduction. Correlation coefficients between band-limited source-space power envelopes of different regions of interest were then calculated and corrected for multiple comparisons. Post hoc correlations of connectomic abnormalities with clinical features and performance on cognitive tasks were conducted to investigate the relevance of the dysconnectivity findings. Seventy-four brain region connections were significantly reduced in PTSD (all in the eyes-open condition and predominantly using the theta carrier frequency). Underconnectivity of the orbital and anterior middle frontal gyri were most prominent. Performance differences in the digit span task mapped onto connectivity between 25 of the 74 brain region pairs, including within-network connections in the dorsal attention, frontoparietal control, and ventral attention networks. Robust PTSD-related abnormalities were evident in theta-band source-space orthogonalized power envelope connectivity, which furthermore related to cognitive deficits in these patients. These findings establish a clinically relevant connectomic profile of PTSD using a tool that facilitates the lower-cost clinical translation of network connectivity research.

Evaluating a practical approach to targeted memory reactivation by Vedic Chants and Indian Classical Music during daytime nap

Background: Among the multiple functions of sleep, its role in the establishment of memories seems to be particularly important. Spontaneous memory reactivation during sleep can promote consolidation and thus shape the memory storehouse that each individual possesses. Targeted memory reactivation (TMR) is a method whereby cues associated with previous learning are used to externally reactivate aspects of learning. Aims and Objectives: The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of TMR by Indian classical music and Vedic Chants during daytime nap on consolidation of newly learnt material and to evaluate effect of time spent in various stages of sleep during TMR on consolidation of newly learnt material. Materials and Methods: The study was conducted on 45 participants who were divided into three groups. Memory was assessed with the help of digit span (working memory) and paired associate task (long-term memory) before and after the nap. During 1 h daytime nap, sleep was monitored by polysomnograph. Sound cues were played both during learning of word pairs and during sleep. Results: Participants listening to Vedic Chant performed better in digit span after nap (P = 0.001). When evaluated for subjects of all groups significant positive correlation was found between improvements in digit span score after nap and sleep efficiency, time spent in N3, and percentage of N3 in total recording time and had negative correlation with awake time. No significant change in score of paired associate task after nap was seen. Conclusion: This result paves way for usage of Vedic Chants as a background sound during daytime nap to improve working memory. The result also suggests that a daytime nap with good sleep efficiency and presence of N3 stage of sleep can increase the work efficiency of individuals after nap. Improvement in score of paired associate task in Vedic Chants group though not statistically significant demands for further research in the effect of Vedic Chants on long-term memory.

Reduced deficits observed in children and adolescents with developmental language disorder using proper nonverbalizable span tasks

BackgroundChildren with developmental language disorder (DLD)—previously called Specific Language Impairment (SLI)—often perform poorly in verbal working memory (WM) tasks, but the picture is less clear regarding their visuospatial WM capacity. Recent research has been inconclusive regarding whether visuospatial working memory is impaired in DLD. Additionally, it is still unclear whether the putative disparity of WM performance persists in adolescence. AimsThe aim of the current study was to unveil potential impairments in verbal and visuospatial working memory in DLD by exploring two developmental age groups of French-speaking children and adolescents. MethodsThis study examined verbal and nonverbal short-term and working memory capacity using digit span and Corsi block tasks in twelve children (7–11-year-olds) and twelve adolescents (12-18-year-olds) with developmental language disorder (DLD) in comparison to that in their typically developing peers. ResultsOur findings showed that both children and adolescents with DLD have deficits in storage and processing ability for the verbal domain. However, both the short-term and working memory estimates of immediate capacity for visuospatial information in adolescents with DLD were virtually intact. ConclusionsThese results indicate that both verbal and nonverbal storage and processing capacity are largely modulated by age, suggesting that the children with DLD show virtually intact nonverbal working memory capacity as they reach adolescence.

Effects of a Multicomponent Frailty Prevention Program in Prefrail Community-Dwelling Older Persons: A Randomized Controlled Trial

ObjectiveTo examine the effects of a multicomponent frailty prevention program in community-dwelling older persons with prefrailty. DesignA randomized controlled trial. SettingA community elderly center in Hong Kong. ParticipantsPersons aged ≥50 years who scored 1-2 on a simple frailty questionnaire (FRAIL) MethodsParticipants (n = 127) were randomly assigned to a 12-week multicomponent frailty prevention program (exercise, cognitive training, board game activities) or to a wait-list control group. The primary outcomes were FRAIL scores, frailty status, and a combined frailty measure including subjective (FRAIL total score) and objective (grip strength, muscle endurance, balance, gait speed) measures. The secondary outcomes were verbal fluency assessed by dual-task gait speed, attention and memory assessed by digit span task, executive function assessed by the Frontal Assessment Battery, self-rated health, and life satisfaction. Assessments were conducted at baseline and at week 12. ResultsThe mean age of the participants was 62.2 years, and 88.2% were women. At week 12, the FRAIL score had decreased in the intervention group (−1.3, P < .001) but had increased in the control group (0.3, P < .01) (between-group differences P < .001). In addition, 83.3% and 1.6% of the intervention and control groups, respectively, had reversed from prefrailty to robust phenotype (between-group differences P < .001). Participants in the intervention group also had a greater reduction in the combined frailty score and greater improvements in muscle endurance, balance, verbal fluency, attention and memory, executive function, and self-rated health than those in the control group (all P < .05). There were no significant differences between the groups with respect to grip strength, gait speed, and life satisfaction. Conclusions and implicationsThe multicomponent frailty prevention program reduced frailty and improved physical and cognitive functions, and self-rated health in community-dwelling older persons with prefrailty. Findings can provide insights into the consideration of incorporating frailty prevention programs into the routine practice of community elderly services.

Relations between gross motor skills and executive functions, controlling for the role of information processing and lapses of attention in 8-10 year old children.

This study aimed to systematically investigate the relation between gross motor skills and aspects of executive functioning (i.e. verbal working memory, visuospatial working memory, response inhibition and interference control) in 8–10 year old children. Additionally, the role of information processing (speed and variability) and lapses of attention in the relation between gross motor skills and executive functions was investigated. Data of 732 Dutch children from grade 3 and 4 were analyzed (50.0% boys, 50.4% grade 3, age = 9.16 ± 0.64 years). Gross motor skills were assessed using three items of the Körper Koordinationstest für Kinder and one item of the Bruininks-Oseretsky test of Motor Proficiency, Second Edition. Executive functions were assessed using the Wechsler Digit Span task (verbal working memory), the Visuospatial Memory task (visuospatial working memory), the Stop Signal task (response inhibition) and a modified version of the Flanker task (interference control). Information processing and lapses of attention were obtained by applying an ex-Gaussian analysis on go trials of the Stop Signal task. Multilevel regression analysis showed that gross motor skills were significantly related to verbal working memory, visuospatial working memory and response inhibition, but not to interference control. Lapses of attention was a significant predictor for all executive functions, whereas processing speed was not. Variability in processing speed was only predictive for visuospatial working memory. After controlling for information processing and lapses of attention, gross motor skills were only significantly related to visuospatial working memory and response inhibition. The results suggest that after controlling for information processing and lapses of attention, gross motor skills are related to aspects of executive functions that are most directly involved in, and share common underlying processes with, gross motor skills.

Predicting Attention and Memory Ability based on the Combination of EEG and HRV data in Children

Good performance is important element not only in workplace but also in daily activities. Performance of the human depends on the mental capacity and mental workload. Especially, children in concrete operational stage is critical for further learning ability that they develop their ability to distinguish between quality and quantity. However, the reason that mental workload is difficult to quantify through physiological measures, makes it more complicated to demonstrate the mental workload. When it comes to children’s development, physical change is visible and easy to identify but mental change is not. HRV is relatively easy to measure but has limitation because it is indirect way of measuring brain signal. Above all things, many researches of real-time indicator measuring physiological data such as heart rate variability (HRV) have been done sporadically but not integrated. Therefore, In this study we tried to demonstrate if we can predict the mental capacity not mental workload with the EEG. Attention ability was measured with Stroop task, and memory ability was measured with digit span task. The main outcome of this study is that building predictive models for cognitive functions using physiological measures is feasible and that its predictive models for cognitive functions using physiological measures is feasible and that its predictive power is further improved when EEG is used along with HRV data. It is implied form the outcome of study that combining physiological measures may improve its predictive power by improving the signal relative to noises and that future studies may focus on discovery of further biomarkers for prediction of cognitive functions.

It takes two to make a thing go write: self-reported Spanish reading and writing skill and relationships with digit span and stroop task performance among Spanish-English bilinguals

ABSTRACT The current study examined self-reported first language (Spanish) language reading and writing ability and behavior and relationships with digit span and stroop task performance. A battery of assessments and questionnaires was administered to 81 sequential Spanish-English bilingual university students in the U.S., for whom the sole language of education is English. Hierarchical regression models revealed self-reported amount of Spanish used for academic writing uniquely accounted for 17% of variance in digit span forward scores, controlling for non-verbal IQ. Self-reported Spanish reading and writing ability also significantly predicted higher digit span forward scores and stroop task performance. Findings indicate that vectors of within-population difference related to L1 academic reading and writing are associated with differences in verbal short term memory and inhibition. Findings underscore the importance of considering diversity within bilingual samples and further support theories of a continuum of bilingual experience intensity, which is related to outcomes.

Assessment of auditory working memory in normal hearing adults with tinnitus.

Tinnitus is characterized by the perception of sound without an existing external stimulus. The presence of tinnitus might be intolerable for many and can be sufficiently troublesome in hearing, sleep, thought processing, and other functional abilities, all of which can negatively impact the quality of life. Individuals with tinnitus may have decreased cognitive efficiency because tinnitus can adversely affect the other tasks being performed. The present study was taken up to evaluate auditory working memory using digit span tasks in adults with tinnitus. The tasks administered included forward, backward, ascending, and descending digit span. Tinnitus Handicap Inventory questionnaire was administered on all the individuals with tinnitus, and also, it was attempted to correlate the scores of auditory working memory with that of tinnitus handicap inventory. The results indicated poorer scores for backward, ascending and descending digit span task and no significant difference for the forward digit span task. There was no correlation between auditory working memory tasks and overall tinnitus handicap scores along with its sub-scales. It was concluded that tinnitus disrupts the functioning of auditory working memory and is governed by the annoyance caused by tinnitus.

Pupillary dilation responses as a midlife indicator of risk for Alzheimer's disease: association with Alzheimer's disease polygenic risk

Locus coeruleus (LC) tau accumulation begins early. Targeting LC (dys)function might improve early identification for Alzheimer's disease (AD) risk. Pupillary responses during cognitive tasks are driven by the LC and index cognitive effort. Despite equivalent task performance, adults with mild cognitive impairment have greater pupil dilation/effort during digit span than cognitively normal (CN) individuals. We hypothesized that AD polygenic risk scores (AD-PRSs) would be associated with pupillary responses in middle-aged CN adults. Pupillary responses during digit span tasks were heritable (h2 = 0.30–0.36) in 1119 men aged 56–66 years. In a CN subset—all with comparable span capacities (n = 539)—higher AD-PRSs were associated with greater pupil dilation/effort in a high (9-digit) cognitive load condition (Cohen's d = 0.36 for upper vs. lower quartile of AD-PRS distribution). Results held up after controlling for APOE genotype. Results support pupillary response—and by inference, LC dysfunction—as a genetically mediated biomarker of early mild cognitive impairment/AD risk. In combination with other biomarkers, task-evoked pupillary responses may provide additional information for early screening of genetically at-risk individuals even before cognitive declines.

Neural Evidence of Superior Memory: How to Capture Brain Activities of Encoding Processes Underlying Superior Memory.

Relatively little attention has been paid to the neural basis of superior memory despite its potential in providing important insight into efforts to improve memory in the general population or to offset age-related cognitive decline. The current study reports a rare opportunity to reproduce and isolate specific neural activities directly associated with exceptional memory. To capture the brain processes responsible for superior memory, we returned to a laboratory task and analytic approach used to explore the nature of exceptional memory, namely, digit-span task combined with verbal protocol analysis. One participant with average memory received approximately 50 h of digit-span training and the participant’s digit-span increased from normative (8 digits) to exceptional (30 digits). Event-related potentials were recorded while the participant’s digit span increased from 19 to 30 digits. Protocol analysis allowed us to identify direct behavioral indices of idiosyncratic encoding processes underlying the superior memory performance. EEG indices directly corresponding to the behavioral indices of encoding processes were identified. The results suggest that the early attention-related encoding processes were reflected in theta and delta whereas the later attention-independent encoding processes were reflected in time-domain slow-wave. This fine-grained approach offers new insights into studying neural mechanism mediating superior memory and the cognitive effort necessary to develop it.

The effect of low-intensity aerobic training on cognitive functions of severely deconditioned subacute and chronic stroke patients: a randomized, controlled pilot study.

Our objective was to investigate the impact of low-intensity aerobic training on cognitive functions in severely deconditioned subacute and chronic stroke patients. For this purpose, a randomized, controlled pilot study was designed involving subacute and chronic stroke patients. Thirty-seven eligible patients participated in the 4-week-long randomized, controlled pilot study. Patients were randomized into study group and control group and both groups participated in conventional physiotherapy included occupational therapy. Only the study group's patients participated in a low-intensity aerobic training by cycle ergometer. Cognitive evaluations (Functional Independence Measure Cognitive part - FIM-cog; Coding and Symbol Search tasks of the Processing Speed index and Digit Span task of Working Memory index of Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Fourth Edition) were performed before and after the programme. In-group analysis showed a significant improvement in study group patients regarding Coding subtest of Processing Speed domain (P = 0.003). Symbol Search subtest of Processing Speed showed significant improvements in both groups by the end of the programme (study group, P = 0.041; control group, P = 0.006). There were no significant changes in the FIM-cog and Digit Span task. The intergroup analysis did not find significant difference between the two groups. It was concluded that even the low-intensity aerobic training may improve special domains of cognitive function after stroke. Further studies are needed to confirm the impact of low-intensity aerobic training on cognitive functions.

Sustained Effect of Music Training on the Enhancement of Executive Function in Preschool Children.

Musical training is an enrichment activity involving multiple senses, including auditory, visual, somatosensorial, attention, memory, and executive function (EF), all of which are related to cognition. This study examined whether musical training enhances EF in preschool children who had not undergone previous systematic music learning. This study also explored the after-effects 12 weeks after cessation of musical training. Participants were 61 preschool children from a university-affiliated kindergarten in North China. The experimental group underwent 12 weeks of integrated musical training (i.e., music theory, singing, dancing, and role-playing), while the control group performed typical daily classroom activities. The three components (inhibitory control, working memory, cognitive flexibility) of executive functions were evaluated using the Day/Night Stroop, Dimensional Change Card Sort, Dot Matrix Test, and Backward Digit Span Task. In Experiment 1, EFs were tested twice-before (T1) and after (T2) the music training. The results showed that children’s EFs could be promoted by musical training. In addition, EFs were tested again 12 weeks later after the end of the intervention (T3) in Experiment 2. We discovered that integrated musical training demonstrated a sustained promotion effect.

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MEDIA MULTITASKING, WORKING MEMORY AND SUSTAINED ATTENTION

Using more than one device simultaneously is almost inevitable in our daily lives because we face an overload of information and digital devices. As a result, the effects of multitasking on working memory and sustained attention have become a popular research topic in the literature, even if with inconsistent results. The current study aims to examine the effects of media multitasking behavior on sustained attention and working memory with a sample of Turkish young adults. Continuous Performance Task (CPT) and Digit Span tasks were employed for sustained attention and working memory, respectively. The results showed that media multitasking correlated positively with digit span task performance and negatively with the reaction time of false response in the CPT task. That is to say, media multitasking may improve working memory performance but inhibit maintaining attention. The results are discussed in the light of theories of limited capacity, multiple resources, and neural plasticity.

Positive Effects of Nature on Cognitive Performance Across Multiple Experiments: Test Order but Not Affect Modulates the Cognitive Effects.

Interactions with natural environments and nature-related stimuli have been found to be beneficial to cognitive performance, in particular on executive cognitive tasks with high demands on directed attention processes. However, results vary across different studies. The aim of the present paper was to evaluate the effects of nature vs. urban environments on cognitive performance across all of our published and new/unpublished studies testing the effects of different interactions with nature vs. urban/built control environments, on an executive-functioning test with high demands on directed attention—the backwards digit span (BDS) task. Specific aims in this study were to: (1) evaluate the effect of nature vs. urban environment interactions on BDS across different exposure types (e.g., real-world vs. artificial environments/stimuli); (2) disentangle the effects of testing order (i.e., effects caused by the order in which experimental conditions are administered) from the effects of the environment interactions, and (3) test the (mediating) role of affective changes on BDS performance. To this end, data from 13 experiments are presented, and pooled data-analyses are performed. Results from the pooled data-analyses (N = 528 participants) showed significant time-by-environment interactions with beneficial effects of nature compared to urban environments on BDS performance. There were also clear interactions with the order in which environment conditions were tested. Specifically, there were practice effects across environment conditions in first sessions. Importantly, after parceling out initial practice effects, the positive effects of nature compared to urban interactions on BDS performance were magnified. Changes in positive or negative affect did not mediate the beneficial effects of nature on BDS performance. These results are discussed in relation to the findings of other studies identified in the literature. Uncontrolled and confounding order effects (i.e., effects due to the order of experimental conditions, rather than the treatment conditions) may explain some of the inconsistent findings across studies in the literature on nature effects on cognitive performance. In all, these results highlight the robustness of the effects of natural environments on cognition, particularly when confounding order effects have been considered, and provide a more nuanced account of when a nature intervention will be most effective.

P1‐240: GAIT IMPAIRMENTS DISTINGUISH DEMENTIA SUBTYPES AND NORMAL AGEING: A COMPARISON OF SINGLE‐ AND DUAL‐TASK GAIT

Background Gait impairments distinguish dementia subtypes from each other and normal ageing when assessed under single task (ST) conditions (i.e. performing gait only). Assessing gait under dual-task (DT) conditions (i.e. performing an additional cognitive task) may reveal gait impairments not obvious during ST gait, due to greater cognitive demand. Studies suggest DT gait may be useful for identifying early dementia. This study aims to investigate whether DT gait can improve distinguishing between dementia subtypes and normal ageing. Methods 107 participants were recruited; 34 AD ((mean±SD) Age:77±7; MMSE:23±4), 29 DLB (Age:76±6; MMSE:24±4), 15 PDD (Age:78±6; MMSE:24±4) and 29 controls (Age:74±9; MMSE:29±1). Dementia subtypes ranged in severity from mild cognitive impairment to moderate dementia. Gait was assessed using an instrumented walkway (GAITRite) under ST and DT conditions (performing an additional standardized digit-span task). Dual task cost (DTC) was calculated by subtracting ST performance from DT performance and described by raw scores. One-way ANOVA and non-parametric equivalents assessed group differences. Paired-samples t-tests and non-parametric equivalents assessed differences in gait performance between conditions. Results In ST, preliminary results show that all disease groups had impaired gait compared to controls (p≤.05). The PDD and DLB groups were also significantly more variable and asymmetric (p≤.05) compared to AD. However, in DT conditions, there were no between-group differences. Controls had a higher maximum digit span compared to all dementia groups (6±1 vs.5±1, respectively;p≤.05).When comparing conditions using repeated measures, gait was significantly impaired under DT conditions (p≤.05) for controls. The AD groups demonstrated greater step velocity variability (p=.048) during DT, and the DLB group had greater step velocity and length variability (p≤.001). After calculating DTC for gait, AD group demonstrated less change for gait variability (p≤.05) compared to controls. There were no other group differences for gait DTC or for digit span DTC. Conclusions This study found that ST gait distinguishes early dementia from normal ageing and differentiates subtypes. However, assessing DT gait using a cognitive task standardised to individual performance, gait impairments were indistinguishable between groups. Therefore, ST gait assessment may be more effective for supporting dementia diagnosis. However, future studies should investigate different dual-task paradigms.

Allostatic load index and its clinical correlates at various stages of psychosis

Accumulating evidence indicates systemic biological dysregulations in patients with psychosis that have been conceptualized as the “allostatic load” (AL) index. We aimed to investigate the AL index in 37 subjects at familial high risk of psychosis (FHRP), 42 first-episode psychosis (FEP) patients, 25 acutely relapsed schizophrenia (SCZ-AR) patients and 42 healthy controls (HCs), taking into account psychopathology and cognitive impairment. The AL index was calculated based on 15 biomarkers (cardiovascular markers, anthropometric measures, inflammatory markers, glucose homeostasis parameters, lipids and steroids). Cognition was assessed using the Repeatable Battery for the Assessment of Neuropsychological Status (RBANS). The AL index was significantly higher in patients with psychosis and FHR-P individuals compared to HCs. Patients with FEP and FHR-P individuals had similar AL index. Moreover, the AL index was significantly higher in SCZ-AR patients compared to other groups of participants. Higher AL index was associated with more severe general psychopathology and depressive symptoms, lower scores of attention (total score, digit span and digit coding tasks) and semantic fluency, as well as worse general functioning in patients with psychosis. There was a significant negative correlation between the AL index and the scores of attention (total score and digit coding task) in FHR-P individuals. No significant correlations between the AL index and cognition were found in HCs. Our results indicate that biological dysregulations, captured by the AL index, appear already in FHR-P individuals and progress with psychotic exacerbations. Elevated AL index might contribute to cognitive impairments in FHR-P individuals and patients with psychosis.

Altered working memory capacity for social threat words in high versus low social anxiety

ABSTRACTBackground and objectives: Differences in working memory capacity (WMC) have been suggested in individuals with high levels of social anxiety (SA). Specifically, these individuals may preferentially maintain socially threatening material in working memory.Design and methods: We adapted the digit span task to a series of word span tasks. We assessed WMC for lists of words that varied in terms of their threat-relatedness, in individuals either high or low in SA.Results: Experiment 1 revealed reduced WMC for socially threatening words in those with high compared to low SA. Importantly, this relative reduction in WMC was driven by the low SA group showing expanded capacity for socially threatening words relative to neutral or generally threatening words. Furthermore, reductions in WMC for social threat were uniquely predicted by SA, and not by other theoretically related constructs such as state general anxiety, trait general anxiety, or depression. Experiment 2 showed that the semantic similarity of the words within each list was not responsible for the differences in WMC between list type or SA group.Conclusions: Our findings suggest that individuals high in SA may fail to upregulate WMC for social information due to the activation of, or rumination upon, socially threatening concepts.

Auditory memory span in Mandarin-speaking preschoolers with congenital hearing loss: Impact of task structure

Objective: The current research was conducted to test the prediction that children who have hearing loss and are developing spoken language can perform at the same level as hearing children in an auditory memory span task if actual production of speech is excluded from task requirement.Method: A listen-and-point digit span task and two sub-tests of Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-IV (Verbal Digit Span and Matrix Reasoning) were administered to thirty hearing children and thirty-three children with hearing loss. A language assessment instrument for Mandarin-speaking preschool children was also administered to the participants with hearing loss.Results: The listen-and-point task not only correlated with the Verbal Digit Span sub-test, but also correlated with the comprehension sub-test of the language assessment instrument. The size of auditory memory span was similar in both groups of participants in the listen-and-point task. Moreover, the memory span estimated in the listen-and-point task was smaller than that estimated in the Verbal Digit Span task. The correlation coefficients between chronological age and the listen-and-point task were also similar in both groups of children.Conclusions: When speech processes are not required in an auditory working memory task, demand for the phonological loop is reduced and the children with hearing loss are able to perform as well as the hearing children. Moreover, the auditory memory span develops at the same rate for the children with hearing loss as for the hearing children.

Reliability of Cognitive Measures in Individuals With a Chronic Spinal Cord Injury.

Following spinal cord injury (SCI), up to 64% of individuals experience cognitive deficit. However, the reliability of commonly used neuropsychological tests is currently unknown in this population. To evaluate the test-retest reliability of cognitive measures in individuals with SCI. Cross-sectional study. Vancouver General Hospital. Individuals with a chronic (>2 years) SCI (n = 22). Across three visits (separated by ~16 days), 22 participants with chronic SCI completed a neuropsychological battery evaluating memory (Rey Auditory-Verbal Learning Test [RAVLT]), attention/concentration/psychomotor speed (Digit Span Task, Stroop Test), and executive function (Trail Making Test A&B, Symbol Digit Modalities Test, Controlled Oral Word Association Test). Coefficients of variation (CVintra ) and intraclass correlation coefficients (ICCs) were calculated to determine the reliability of each test between visits. Linear regressions were performed to assess the associations between variability (CVintra ) and participant characteristics, such as age or highest education level attained. Repeated-measures, one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted to determine any significant practice effects, and smallest real differences (SRDs) were calculated. Repeated scores on aforementioned neuropsychological tests. ICCs ranged from 0.77 to 0.93, with the exception of RAVLT recognition score (ICC = 0.27). Age showed a moderate association with CVintra in RAVLT interference recall scores (r = 0.43, P = .047), but was not a confounding factor for other measures. Education was not associated with CVintra . Significant practice effects were noted for most of the cognitive tests assessed. Other than the RAVLT recognition score, these cognitive measures demonstrated good-to-excellent reliability. Although this is encouraging, test-retest variability should be considered when interpreting the efficacy of various cognitive training strategies to mitigate cognitive decline in this population. Thus, the SRD values presented herein will allow researchers and clinicians to identify "true" changes in cognitive function with repeated testing. III.

The feasibility of working memory tablet tasks in predicting scholastic skills in classroom settings

SummaryCognitive assessment in natural group settings facilitates data collection but poses threats to the validity. In this study, tablet‐based working memory (WM) tasks, the counting span, and reading span were used in predicting 12‐year‐old children's (N = 837) scholastic skills and fluid intelligence in a classroom with environmental noise. WM tasks had excellent internal consistency, correlated with scholastic skills, and accounted for more of the variance in cognitive performance (grade point average, fluid intelligence, scholastic skills) compared with individually administered (n = 190) digit span task. Furthermore, the multilevel analysis revealed that compared with the classrooms with no noise, when naturally occurring speech or nonspeech types of environmental noises were present during assessment, WM scores or the reliability estimates were not lower. In contrast, when both types of noises were present, the relationships between some of the WM and achievement scores were even stronger. Thus, assessments in natural classroom contexts may promote revealing the individual differences in WM.