Digit Span Sequencing Research Articles

B - 142 Reason to Forget Use of (Most) Digit Span Validity Measures in Aging Clinical Samples

Abstract Objective The Digit Span (DS) subtest has survived every iteration of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS), and the reliable digit span (RDS forward+backward) is an established embedded performance validity test (PVT). The only known DS meta-analysis drew near equivalency between the WAIS-R and WAIS-III RDS and age-corrected scaled score (ACSS) validity cutoffs, recommending use of either. The WAIS-IV included a new DS sequencing subtest. Alternate and enhanced RDS measures, adding sequencing, were derived. However, aging samples often perseverate on sequencing. The aims of this study are to confirm and update the faulty use of the enhanced RDS in the aging, establish that use of the previously recommended DS ACSS cutoff (now including sequencing) is similarly faulty, and update all DS PVT cutoff specificities in a clinical aging sample. Method Memory Clinic data were taken from 350 individuals with neuropsychologist-neurologist consensus diagnoses including 111 individuals with early Alzheimer’s disease (ad), 181 with mild cognitive impairment (MCI; 99 amnestic; 82 non-amnestic) and 58 with subjective cognitive complaints (SCC). Results Most DS embedded PVTs (e.g., ACSS<6, Enhanced RDS < 11) present with poor specificity in aging clinical populations (e.g., Χ2 (3350) = 26.331,p = <0.001), while the traditional RDS (< 6) excludes sequencing and retains the best relative specificity (81–95%), as ad performs worst on sequencing (<0.001). Conclusions While prior research favored the DS ACSS in older individuals, this study provided support for the traditional RDS in a memory clinic population. Future directions include corroborating these findings using standalone PVTs and conducting an updated DS meta-analysis.

CLINICAL AND COGNITIVE PHENOTYPING OF COPY NUMBER VARIANTS PATHOGENIC FOR NEURODEVELOPMENTAL DISORDERS FROM A MULTI-ANCESTRY BIOBANK.

Rare copy number variants (CNVs) are pathogenic for neurodevelopmental disorders (NDDs) and effect neurocognitive impairment. In aggregate, NDD CNVs may present in up to 2% of population cohorts with implications for neuropsychiatric disease risk and cognitive health. However, analyses of NDD CNVs in biobanks or population cohorts have been hindered by limited clinical or cognitive phenotypes, and a lack of ancestral diversity. In the current proof-of-concept study, NDD CNV carriers were recontacted from BioMe, a multi-ancestry biobank derived from the Mount Sinai healthcare system, to enable 'deep phenotyping' beyond electronic health record outcomes. From BioMe biobank, 892 adult participants were recontacted, including 335 harboring NDD CNVs, 217 with schizophrenia and 340 neurotypical controls as comparators. Clinical and cognitive assessments were administered to each recruited participant. Seventy-three participants completed study assessments (mean age=48.8 years; 66% female; 36% African, 26% European, 34% Hispanic), or 8% of the recontacted subset, including 30 NDD CNV carriers across 15 loci. Among NDD CNV carriers, assessments indicated 40% with mood and anxiety disorders, 30% with learning disorders, and 13% with a history of special education. NDD CNV carriers were significantly cognitively impaired compared to controls on digit span backwards (Beta=-1.76, FDR=0.04) and digit span sequencing (Beta=-2.01, FDR=0.04). Feasibility of "recall-by-genotype" from a multi-ancestry biobank was established for NDD CNV carriers, along with comparator groups. The current study corroborated past reports of NDD CNVs effects of cognitive impairment, while elucidating clinical phenotypes for recalled individuals. Future "recall-by-genotype" studies may further facilitate clinical characterization of disease-relevant genomic variants.

Facilitation of working memory capacity by transcranial direct current stimulation: a secondary analysis from the augmenting cognitive training in older adults (ACT) study.

Aging is a public health concern with an ever-increasing magnitude worldwide. An array of neuroscience-based approaches like transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) and cognitive training have garnered attention in the last decades to ameliorate the effects of cognitive aging in older adults. This study evaluated the effects of 3months of bilateral tDCS over the frontal cortices with multimodal cognitive training on working memory capacity. Two hundred ninety-two older adults without dementia were allocated to active or sham tDCS paired with cognitive training. These participants received repeated sessions of bilateral tDCS over the bilateral frontal cortices, combined with multimodal cognitive training. Working memory capacity was assessed with the digit span forward, backward, and sequencing tests. No baseline differences between active and sham groups were observed. Multiple linear regressions indicated more improvement of the longest digit span backward from baseline to post-intervention (p = 0.021) and a trend towards greater improvement (p = 0.056) of the longest digit span backward from baseline to 1year in the active tDCS group. No significant between-group changes were observed for digit span forward or digit span sequencing. The present results provide evidence for the potential for tDCS paired with cognitive training to remediate age-related declines in working memory capacity. These findings are sourced from secondary outcomes in a large randomized clinical trial and thus deserve future targeted investigation in older adult populations.

73 Do depression, anxiety, or stress moderate the relationship between simple attention, working memory and verbal learning?

Objective:Working memory is a vital construct in efficient verbal memory encoding (Cotton & Ricker, 2021). Working memory is impacted by attentional capacities (Riccio, Cohen, Garrison, & Smith, 2005). Mood symptoms impact efficient information processing and consolidation of memory (Hubbard, 2016; Lukasik, 2019). This study examines self-reported symptoms of depression, anxiety, and stress as possible moderators of the relationship between working memory and a verbal list-learning task.Participants and Methods:Archival data from 415 adults (Mage= 56.10, SD=18.05; Medu= 15.5 SD=2.2; 53% female; 73% white) were collected at an outpatient clinic. Sex and race were not available in a small percentage of cases included in analyses. The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale 4th Edition Digit Span subtest was given to assess attention and working memory. Although Digit Span Forward is a measure of simple attention, not working memory, it was included in initial analyses because the subtest was given as a whole. The three components of Digit Span total, Forward, Backward, and Sequencing were also investigated separately, with the two latter scores being better representations of working memory. Learning was assessed via the California Verbal Learning Test (CVLT-II) total T-Score (Trials 1-5). Mood was assessed via the Depression Anxiety and Stress Scales (DASS-42).Results:Results of a hierarchical linear regression showed a significant effect between total Digit Span performance and total learning on the CVLT-II in the Block 1 (F(3, 411)=14.383, p =<.001 , AR2=.095). Standardized beta weights and p-values for Digit Span Forward, Backward, and Sequencing were (ß=-.50, p=.374), (ß= .159, p=.009), and (ß=.210, p<.001) respectively. In Block 2, when the DASS variables were introduced, the model remained significant F(3,408)=2.602, p=.05 , AR2=.017). The DASS anxiety and stress subscales had significant beta weights in the model (ß=-.172, p=.015) and (ß=.144, p=.039) respectively, with depression being insignificant (ß=--.023, p=.724).Conclusions:Mood symptoms have been shown to be an important consideration when assessing working memory and verbal learning performance (Massey, Meares, Batchelor, & Bryant, 2015). Present results demonstrate that when accounting for working memory, anxiety and stress were significant predictors of performance on a measure of verbal learning. Additionally, as the components best representing working memory, Digit Span Sequencing and Backward were significantly correlated with verbal learning, whereas a measure best representing simple attention, Digit Span Forward, was not significantly correlated with verbal learning.

27 Examining the Relationship Between Spanish-English Bilingualism and Digit Span Performance

Objective:Bilingualism has shown to have significant implications for neuropsychological assessment, namely, the Digit Span task. Moreover, bilingual individuals have been shown to exhibit both advantages and disadvantages on Digit Span; however, the relationship between bilingualism and performance on this subtest is poorly understood. This research aims to better understand how Hispanic Spanish-English bilinguals perform on this commonly administered working memory subtest.Participants and Methods:Participants included 82 Hispanic Spanish-English bilinguals [Age: M=29.11 (SD=6.369); Education: M=15.68 (SD=2.255); 53.7% female]. The participants completed the Language and Social Background Questionnaire (LSBQ; composite factor scores) and the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale -Fourth Edition (WAIS-IV) Digit Span (raw scores) subtest via Zoom, an online video conferencing platform. A hierarchical multiple regression analysis was utilized to predict participants’ Digit Span performance based on their LSBQ composite factor scores. Hierarchical multiple regression analyses were conducted using SPSS Version 27.Results:LSBQ composite factor scores significantly predicted Digit Span Forward, F (3, 78) = 1.835, p < 0.43 (R2 = .030) and Longest Digit Span Forward, F (1, 78) = 4.02, p < 0.48 (R2 = .041) scores. LSBQ composite factor scores did not significantly predict Digit Span Backward, F (3, 78) = .344, p = .941, Digit Span Sequencing, F (3, 78) = .598, p = .731, Digit Span Total, F (3, 78) = .440, p = 0.296, Longest Digit Span Backward, F (3, 78) = .510, p = .666, or Longest Digit Span sequencing F (3, 78) = .200, p = .751 scores.Conclusions:Results suggest that Hispanic Spanish-English bilinguals perform worse on Digit Span Forward and Longest Digit Span Forward as their bilingual experiences increase. However, bilingual experiences did not significantly predict Digit Span Backward, Digit Span Sequencing, Digit Span Total, Longest Digit Span Backward, or Longest Digit Span Sequencing scores. The contrasts in Digit Span performance may be attributed to the different ways in which each condition of the subtest is cognitively processed. Therefore, clinicians and researchers should use caution when interpreting test data for Digit Span with Hispanic Spanish-English bilinguals.

30 Examining the Bilingual Advantage in Executive Functioning in ADHD: A Retrospective Study

Objective:Several studies have found a bilingualism advantage on executive functioning tasks like cognitive flexibility, inhibitory control, switching, and working memory in typically developing populations. (Grote et al., 2015, Foy & Mann, 2014). However, some studies have found deficits in inhibitory control and switching for bilingual individuals with Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) compared to monolingual individuals and control groups (Bialystok et al., 2017, Mor et al., 2015). They suggest that this disadvantage is due to the burden of managing two language systems which perpetuates the executive dysfunction seen in ADHD. The current study aims to examine if there is a bilingualism advantage in other aspects of executive function, including inhibitory control, planning, problem solving, switching, and working memory among children and adults diagnosed with ADHD.Participants and Methods:The medical records of 170 patients evaluated in an outpatient neuropsychology clinic from 20182022 were reviewed. Sixty participants diagnosed with ADHD, between the ages of 6 and 46 (61.67% male), comprised the final sample. Forty-one were monolingual and 19 were bilingual or multilingual. Language status was based upon patient or parental report. Outcomes on various direct and indirect measures of executive function were examined.Results:Linear regression models, adjusting for age and sex, revealed a significant bilingual advantage on the following measures: Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children- Fifth Edition (WISC-V) and Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale - Fourth Edition (WAIS-IV) Digit Span Backwards and Digit Span Sequencing, WISC-V Picture Span, and Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function, 2nd Edition (BRIEF-2) Parent-Report Emotion Regulation Index (ERI). There were no significant differences in scores between monolinguals and bilinguals on the following measures: Delis-Kaplan Executive Function System (D-KEFS) Color-Word Interference Inhibition versus Combined Naming Contrast Score and Inhibition/Switching versus Inhibition Contrast Score, D-KEFS Trail Making Number-Letter Switching versus Combined Number Sequencing and Letter Sequencing Contrast Score, A Developmental Neuropsychological Assessment, 2nd Edition (NEPSY-2) Naming versus Inhibition Contrast Score and Switching versus Inhibition Contrast Score, Wisconsin Card Sort Task Learning to Learn Index, BRIEF-2 Parent-rated Behavioral Regulation Index (BRI), Cognitive Regulation Index(CRI), and Global Executive Composite(GEC), BRIEF-2 Self-rated BRI, ERI, CRI, and GEC, or BRIEF Adult Version BRI, Metacognitive Index, and GEC.Conclusions:Bilingual status is associated with stronger auditory and visual working memory among people with ADHD, but not with stronger inhibitory control, switching, planning, or problem solving skills. At the same time, there were no significant differences between monolingual and bilingual ADHD patients on BRIEF parent- or self-rated behavioral or cognitive dysregulation. Our results suggest that bilingualism may confer an advantage in some aspects of executive function among a population with weak attention and executive function skills more broadly. Furthermore, we did not find any type of disadvantage for those who are bilingual. Future studies should examine whether lower parental ratings of emotion dysregulation among ADHD patients who are bilingual are due to bilingual children’s better ability to adapt to different situations or cultural differences in parenting practices.

Comparing Working Memory and Verbal Learning in Older Adult Musicians and Non-musicians

Previous research suggests that learning or playing an instrument may benefit working memory and executive functioning. The literature also suggests vocal training or singing ability may increase proficiency in verbal learning and working memory. Despite the benefits of musical training, the underlying mechanisms remain unclear. Older adult participants (N=38, Mean age =70.2) provided their music training history and completed a cognitive test battery. Musicians were either instrumentalists and/or vocalists (N=24) or non-musicians (N=14). Independent t test analyses were run with the current modest sample size to compare scores in basic and complex attention and working memory (Digit Span Forward (DSF) and Digit Span Backwards (DSB, and Digit Span Sequencing (DSS)), and verbal learning and memory (California Verbal Learning Test-3 (CVLT)). Results found that musicians/singers had higher scores compared to non-musicians on DSS (t(32)= -1.96, Cohen’s d =.72, p =.058) and on CVLT delayed raw scores(t(32)= -1.98, Cohen’s d=.71, p=.056), both with a medium-large effect size. There were no significant differences found between musicians and non-musicians in DSF and DSB or on CVLT immediate recall/learning. The results suggest that musical training, either instrumental or vocal, may contribute to working memory and verbal memory in older adults. Both the Digit Span task and CVLT rely heavily on executive functioning ability, which may act as a mechanism or mediator between instrumental and vocal training and scores on these cognitive tasks.

Anxiety severity and cognitive function in primary care patients with anxiety disorder: a cross-sectional study

BackgroundDeficits in cognitive performance are reported in patients with anxiety disorders, but research is limited and inconsistent. We aimed to investigate cross-sectional associations between cognitive function, with focus on executive function, and anxiety severity in primary care patients diagnosed with anxiety disorders.Methods189 Swedish patients aged 18–65 years (31% men) with anxiety disorders diagnosed according to Mini International Neuropsychiatric Interview were included. Severity of anxiety was assessed using Beck Anxiety Inventory self-assessment scale. Digit span, block design and matrix reasoning tests from the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale IV, and the design fluency test from the Delis-Kaplan Executive Function System were used. Multivariable linear regression models were applied to investigate the relationship of anxiety severity and cognitive functioning. Comparisons were also performed to a normed non-clinical population, using the Wilcoxon signed rank test.ResultsMore severe anxiety was associated with lower digit span test scores (R2 = 0.109, B = -0.040, p = 0.018), but not with block design, matrix reasoning or design fluency tests scores, after adjustment for comorbid major depression in a multivariable model. When compared to a normed population, patients with anxiety performed significantly lower on the block design, digit span forward, digit span sequencing and matrix reasoning tests.ConclusionsSeverity of anxiety among patients with anxiety disorder was associated with executive functions related to working memory, independently of comorbid major depression, but not with lower fluid intelligence. A further understanding of the executive behavioral control in patients with anxiety could allow for more tailored treatment strategies including medication, therapy and interventions targeted to improve specific cognitive domains.

Utility of WAIS-IV Digit Span indices as measures of performance validity in moderate to severe traumatic brain injury

Objective: The addition of Sequencing to WAIS-IV Digit Span (DS) brought about new Reliable Digit Span (RDS) indices and an Age-Corrected Scaled Score that includes Sequencing trials. Reports have indicated that these new performance validity tests (PVTs) are superior to the traditional RDS; however, comparisons in the context of known neurocognitive impairment are sparse. This study compared DS-derived PVT classification accuracies in a design that included adults with verified TBI. Methods: Participants included 64 adults with moderate-to-severe TBI (TBI), 51 healthy adults coached to simulate TBI (SIM), and 78 healthy comparisons (HC). Participants completed the WAIS-IV DS subtest in the context of a larger test battery. Results: Kruskal–Wallis tests indicated that all DS indices differed significantly across groups. Post hoc contrasts revealed that only RDS Forward and the traditional RDS differed significantly between SIM and TBI. ROC analyses indicated that RDS variables were comparable predictors of SIM vs. HC; however, the traditional RDS showed the highest sensitivity when approximating 90% specificity for SIM vs. TBI. A greater percentage of TBI scored RDS Sequencing < 1 compared to SIM and HC. Conclusion: In the context of moderate-to-severe TBI, the DS-derived PVTs showed comparable discriminability. However, the Greiffenstein et al. traditional RDS demonstrated the best classification accuracy with respect to specificity/sensitivity balance. This relative superiority may reflect that individuals with verified TBI are more likely to perseverate on prior instructions during DS Sequencing. Findings highlight the importance of including individuals with verified TBI when evaluating and developing PVTs.

Comparison of sub‐tests in working memory index among posterior cortical atrophy, Alzheimer’s disease and age‐associated memory impairment

AbstractBackgroundPosterior cortical atrophy (PCA) is a rare syndrome of Dementia. Typically, the main symptoms is visuoperceptual impairment. However, working memory impairment has also been reported. This study aimed reveal the pattern of working memory index impairment in PCA by comparing to Alzheimer’s disease patients (AD) and Age‐associated Memory Impairment subjects (AAMI).MethodPatients were recruited from Neurocognitive Clinic, King Chulalongkorn Memorial Hospital. Working Memory Index (WMI) in Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale – Fourth Edition (WAIS‐IV) was used to assess working memory. WMI is composed of 2 subtests which are Digit Span (DS) and Arithmetic (AR). DS is divided into 3 tasks including Digit Span Forward (DSF), Digit Span Backward (DSB), and Digit Span Sequencing (DSS). The score of WMI and all subtests were converted to standard score by age‐matched group. Descriptive statistics, One‐way ANOVA, and Wilcoxon Sign Test were used to analyze.ResultThere were 7 PCA, 19 AD, and 22 AAMI. WMI score of PCA, AD, and AAMI were 65.86, 91.63, and 99.50 respectively. WMI score of PCA were significantly less than AD (p&lt;0.001) and AAMI (p&lt;0.001). For each subtest scaled score of WMI revealed PCA had DS and AR significantly less than AD (p=0.001) and AAMI (p&lt;0.001). Regarding the scaled score of PCA patients, DS was 4.57 (DSF=7.86, DSB=5.29, and DSS=3.57) and AR was 3.57. DSB and DSS were significantly less than DSF (p≤0.05).ConclusionWorking memory in PCA patients was extremely low compared to AD and AAMI patients. PCA patients were more impaired in mental manipulation and calculation compared to attention. We should consider PCA as a differential diagnosis in dementia patients who score very low on WMI.

Digit span sequencing as a neurocognitive screening tool in an aging, veteran population.

Digit span sequencing as a neurocognitive screening tool in an aging, veteran population.

Wechsler adult intelligence scale-4th edition digit span performance in subjective cognitive complaints, amnestic mild cognitive impairment, and probable dementia of the Alzheimer type

Objective: The Digit Span (DS) subtest from the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-4th Edition (WAIS-IV) was updated to better measure working memory which is potentially clinically relevant as prior unreplicated studies showed that sequencing tasks differentiated normal from neurologic groups. This study examines performance on DS for individuals from a memory disorder clinic diagnosed with amnestic mild cognitive impairment (aMCI), probable dementia of the Alzheimer type (DAT), or those with subjective cognitive complaints (SCC).Method: Seven hundred and six individuals were drawn from 1256 consecutive referrals who underwent a standard neuropsychological evaluation and obtained a consensus diagnosis from a neuropsychologist and a neurologist of DAT, aMCI, or having SCC. This resulted in a sample of 290 individuals with DAT, 255 with aMCI, and 161 with SCC.Results: Those with DAT performed significantly worse for DS Forward, Backward, and Total Score versus those with aMCI and SCC, whose performances were similar. Digit Span Sequencing was significantly different in each group (DAT < aMCI < SCC), with a high rate of the DAT group showing cross-task perseveration.Conclusions: The DS sequencing results differed between the three clinical groups, which is consistent with the hypothesis that working memory declines would be evident on this measure. Discontinuation of DSS due to cross-task perseveration was frequently seen in, although not unique to, the DAT group. Both poorer DSS performance and the presence of perseveration can offer useful clinical information on the context of a thorough evaluation of the aMCI/DAT spectrum.

Impact of Cognitive Profile on Impulse Control Disorders Presence and Severity in Parkinson's Disease.

Background: Impulse control disorders (ICDs) and related behaviors are frequent in Parkinson's disease (PD). Mild cognitive impairment (PD-MCI) and dementia (PDD), both characterized by heterogeneous cognitive phenotypes, are also commonly reported in PD. However, the frequency and severity of ICD within PD cognitive states is unknown.Methods: Three hundred and twenty-six PD patients completed a comprehensive neuropsychological assessment and were classified as PD-MCI, PDD, or without cognitive alterations (PD-NC). The Minnesota impulsive disorders interview was used to ascertain the presence (ICD+) or absence (ICD–) of ICD. The Questionnaire for Impulsive-Compulsive Disorders in Parkinson's Disease-Rating Scale was used to assess ICD severity. A subsample of 286 patients evaluated with the same cognitive tasks was selected in order to investigate the characteristics of ICD in PD cognitive phenotypes.Results: ICDs were present in 55% of PD-NC, in 50% of PD-MCI, and in 42% of PDD patients. Frequencies of ICD+ with attentive (ICD+: 20% vs. ICD–: 4%; p = 0.031) and executive impairments (ICD+: 44% vs. ICD–: 30%; p = 0.027) were higher in the PD-MCI and PDD subgroups, respectively. As expected, no differences were observed in the PD-NC. PD-MCI with attentive impairments presented higher percentage of ICD+ with deficits in the Trail Making Test B-A but not in the Digit Span Sequencing task. In PDD, executive failures concerned Similarities task (ICD+: 67%; ICD–: 29%; p = 0.035), with no differences between ICD+ and ICD– in the Stroop task.Conclusions: Prevalence and severity of ICDs and related behaviors do not differ in PD with different cognitive states. However, ICD+ are more likely to show deficits, respectively in attentive and in executive domains, specifically in the Trail Making Test B-A task for the attention and working memory domain in PD-MCI and in the Similarities task for the executive function domain in PDD. Prospective studies should evaluate if these tests can be used as screening tool for ICDs in PD.

Supplemental Material for Digit Span Sequencing as a Neurocognitive Screening Tool in an Aging, Veteran Population

Supplemental Material for Digit Span Sequencing as a Neurocognitive Screening Tool in an Aging, Veteran Population

Digit Span Subscale Scores May Be Insufficiently Reliable for Clinical Interpretation: Distinguishing Between Stratified Coefficient Alpha and Omega Hierarchical.

The Digit Span subscale (Digit Span Forward, Backward, and Sequencing combined composite) internal inconsistency reliability has been reported at .93, based on a coefficient known as stratified coefficient alpha. With accessible examples, we demonstrate that stratified coefficient alpha can deviate substantially from a model-based internal consistency reliability that represents an underlying dimension, that is, omega hierarchical. Next, we simulated item-level Digit Span subscale data to correspond very closely to the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-fourth edition normative sample. Based on omega hierarchical, we estimated the internal consistency reliability associated with the Digit Span subscale scores at .74. In light of the results, clinicians are cautioned against interpreting Digit Span subscale scores. Instead, interpretations should probably be restricted to the Digit Span Forward, Digit Span Backward, and Digit Span Sequencing test scores. Finally, we offer suggestions for improvement to achieve higher levels of Digit Span subscale score reliability.

Scores in Space: Multidimensional Scaling of the WISC-V

The purpose of this study was to use multidimensional scaling (MDS) to investigate relations among scores from the standardization sample of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children–Fifth edition (WISC-V; Wechsler, 2014). Nonmetric two-dimensional MDS maps were selected for interpretation. The most cognitively complex subtests and indexes were located near the center of the maps. Subtests were also grouped together in the way that they are organized in the primary and complementary indexes, and not necessarily on content surface features. Naming Speed and Symbol Translation scores may be better off kept as separate indexes, and Digit Span Sequencing appeared to add more complexity to the Digit Span subtest. One implication related to score interpretation is that General Ability Index (GAI) and Cognitive Proficiency Index (CPI) may be distinguished by the level of complexity of the subtests included in each index (i.e., more complex subtests included in GAI and less complex subtests included in the CPI).

Measuring Fluid Intelligence in Healthy Older Adults.

The present study evaluated subjective and objective cognitive measures as predictors of fluid intelligence in healthy older adults. We hypothesized that objective cognitive measures would predict fluid intelligence to a greater degree than self-reported cognitive functioning. Ninety-three healthy older (>65 years old) community-dwelling adults participated. Raven's Advanced Progressive Matrices (RAPM) were used to measure fluid intelligence, Digit Span Sequencing (DSS) was used to measure working memory, Trail Making Test (TMT) was used to measure cognitive flexibility, Design Fluency Test (DFT) was used to measure creativity, and Tower Test (TT) was used to measure planning. The Cognitive Failures Questionnaire (CFQ) was used to measure subjective perceptions of cognitive functioning. RAPM was correlated with DSS, TT, and DFT. When CFQ was the only predictor, the regression model predicting fluid intelligence was not significant. When DSS, TMT, DFT, and TT were included in the model, there was a significant change in the model and the final model was also significant, with DFT as the only significant predictor. The model accounted for approximately 20% of the variability in fluid intelligence. Our findings suggest that the most reliable means of assessing fluid intelligence is to assess it directly.

Frontal-posterior coherence and cognitive function in older adults

The reliable measurement of brain health and cognitive function is essential in mitigating the negative effects associated with cognitive decline through early and accurate diagnosis of change. The present research explored the relationship between EEG coherence for electrodes within frontal and posterior regions, as well as coherence between frontal and posterior electrodes and performance on standard neuropsychological measures of memory and executive function. EEG coherence for eyes-closed resting-state EEG activity was calculated for delta, theta, alpha, beta, and gamma frequency bands. Participants (N=66; mean age=67.15years) had their resting-state EEGs recorded and completed a neuropsychological battery that assessed memory and executive function, two cognitive domains that are significantly affected during aging. A positive relationship was observed between coherence within the frontal region and performance on measures of memory and executive function for delta and beta frequency bands. In addition, an inverse relationship was observed for coherence between frontal and posterior electrode pairs, particularly within the theta frequency band, and performance on Digit Span Sequencing, a measure of working memory. The present research supports a more substantial link between EEG coherence, rather than spectral power, and cognitive function. Continued study in this area may enable EEG to be applied broadly as a diagnostic measure of cognitive ability.

WAIS-IV Digit Span Variables: Are They Valuable for Use in Predicting TOMM and MSVT Failure?

The Digit Span (DS) task in the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Fourth Edition differs substantially from earlier versions of the measure, with one of the major changes being the addition of a sequencing component. In the present investigation, the usefulness of the new sequencing task and other DS variables (i.e., DS Age-Scaled Score, DS Forward Total, DS Backward Total, and Reliable DS) was investigated with regard to the ability of these variables to predict negative response bias. Negative response bias was first defined and examined using below-cutoff performance on the Test of Memory Malingering (TOMM) (N = 99). Then, for comparison purposes, negative response bias was examined using below-cutoff performance on the Medical Symptom Validity Test (MSVT; N = 95). Study participants included primarily middle-aged outpatients at a Veterans Affairs medical center. Findings from this retrospective analysis showed that, regardless of whether the TOMM or the MSVT was used as the negative response bias criterion, of all the DS variables examined, DS Sequencing Total showed the best classification accuracy. Yet, due to its relatively low positive and negative predictive power, DS Sequencing Total is not recommended for use in isolation to identify negative response bias.

On some verbal short-term and working memory properties in patients suffering from clinical depression

Clinical depression with verbal short-term memory relation research does not yield unequivocal results. While short-term memory (STM) deficits in depressed patients are consistently displayed in working memory (WM) and executive attention tasks, for STM passive memorizing tasks this holds less correct. Objective. Primary goal was to collect initial data on depressed patients treated in Serbian institutions WM/ STM. In addition, we estimated the power of WAIS IV WM subtests to discriminate depressed patients from normal subjects. Method. Depressed patients' sample was contrasted with the parallel group in WAIS' IV Arithmetic, Digit Span, and Letter- Number Sequencing; free word recall task, semantic fluency task, without and with category switching. Results. All the WM measures, with the exception of Digit Span Backward score, discriminate depressed from no depressed subjects. On the other hand, STM tasks, with the exception of short-term word free recall, fail to do the same. We suggest explanation for both the exceptions in terms of WM efficiency. WAIS IV Arithmetic, Digit Span Sequencing and Letter-Number Sequencing can be used to discriminate depressed from control subjects. Performance in STM/WM tasks is in moderate to strong negative correlation with depression severity as assessed with the Hamilton scale. Conclusion. STM deficits in the depressed are likely to be observed in tasks requiring executive attention and WM efficiency rather than in standard STM span tasks. The deficits are inertly related to depression severity.