Digestion Of Emulsions Research Articles

A Rat Model of Human Lipid Emulsion Digestion.

A better understanding of how dietary lipids are processed by the human body is necessary to allow for the control of satiation and energy intake by tailored lipid systems. To examine whether rats are a valid model of human dietary lipid processing and therefore useful for further mechanistic studies in this context, we tested in rats three lipid emulsions of different stability, which alter satiety responses in humans. Different sets of 15 adult male Sprague Dawley rats, equipped with gastric catheters alone or combined with hepatic portal vein (HPV) and vena cava (VC) catheters were maintained on a medium-fat diet and adapted to an 8 h deprivation/16 h feeding schedule. Experiments were performed in a randomized cross-over study design. After gastric infusion of the lipid emulsions, we assessed gastric emptying by the paracetamol absorption test and recorded in separate experiments food intake and plasma levels of gastrointestinal hormones and metabolites in the HPV. For an acid stable emulsion, slower gastric emptying and an enhanced release of satiating gastrointestinal (GI) hormones were observed and were associated with lower short-term energy intake in rats and less hunger in humans, respectively. The magnitude of hormonal responses was related to the acid stability and redispersibility of the emulsions and thus seems to depend on the availability of lipids for digestion. Plasma metabolite levels were unaffected by the emulsion induced changes in lipolysis. The results support that structured lipid systems are digested similarly in rats and humans. Thus unstable emulsions undergo the same intragastric destabilization in both species, i.e., increased droplet size and creaming. This work establishes the rat as a viable animal model for in vivo studies on the control of satiation and energy intake by tailored lipid systems.

Improved hydrolysis of α-tocopherol acetate emulsion and its bioaccessibility in the presence of polysaccharides and PEG2000

Dietary macromolecules are often used for food formulation. Most of the published literature usually focuses on a certain polysaccharide reducing lipid digestion, but the non-specific physical effects such as the excluded volume effect of the surrounding macromolecules, which will possibly enhance the hydrolysis of lipids, is rarely discussed. As the influence of polysaccharides on the gastrointestinal fate of α-tocopherol acetate (VE-A) encapsulated in emulsion have not been conducted so far, in this research, we study the effect of crowded medium created by polysaccharides (Ficoll400) on the hydrolysis of VE-A and its bioaccessibility. The results show that the presence of Ficoll400 increased the bioaccessibility and conversion of VE-A 1.6 times that of a dilute buffer. An enzyme-catalyzed kinetic reaction rate of VE-A hydrolysis is increased up to 3.5 times. Both the improved thermodynamic conversion yields and kinetic rates of the hydrolysis of the VE-A emulsion was further observed in a synthetic macromolecule PEG2000 medium. This research improves our understanding of the crowding effect of macromolecules on VE-A/lipid emulsion digestion.

Comparision of heteroaggregation, layer-by-layer and directly mixing techniques on the physical properties and in vitro digestion of emulsions

This paper systematically compared the effects of heteroaggregation, layer-by-layer and directly mixing techniques on the physical properties of emulsions through mechanical rheology, microrheology, LUMisizer stability analyzer, Cryo-scanning electron microscopy (Cryo-SEM) and in vitro simulated gastrointestinal model. The shear rheology results showed that the viscosity of emulsions stabilized with whey protein isolate (WPI) and flaxseed gum (FG) by different techniques was in the order of heteroaggregated emulsion > layer-by-layer emulsion > directly mixing emulsion. Furthermore, it confirmed that the heteroaggregated emulsion had a best stability and the interface moving speed was the slowest compared with those of layer-by-layer and directly mixing emulsions. Cryo-SEM microstructure results showed that the three dimensional network structure of heteroaggregate was the main reason for maintaining high stability and shear rheological properties. Microrheological properties results indicated that heteroaggregated emulsion was sensitive to the shearing force due to the liquid behavior. While, the structures of WPI-FG emulsions prepared by layer-by-layer and directly mixing were not destroyed after shearing due to their high elasticity and solid behaviors. It was found that the order of released FFA content at the beginning of 30 min was directly mixing emulsion > layer-by-layer emulsion > heteroaggregated emulsion, but the released free fatty acid of heteroaggregated emulsion was the most in the end, which indicated that heteroaggregated emulsion had a certain controlled release effect. The study could be helpful for choosing proper technique to gain good emulsion delivery system.

Influence of chitosan-coating on the stability and digestion of emulsions stabilized by waxy maize starch crystals

We produced emulsions by using waxy maize starch nanocrystals (SNCs) (0.075 wt%) and tricaprylin (2.5 wt%) (particle size (D3,2) of the emulsion: 0.5 μm; ζ-potential (ZP): –18 mV at pH 4) and then covered the droplets with chitosan to enhance the emulsion stability under acidic conditions. In the chitosan concentration ranging from 0.1 to 0.4% w/v, the D3,2 of the emulsion increased from 585 to 638 nm and the ZP of the emulsion increased from 40.6 to 47.5 mV, because of thickening of the chitosan-coating layer at the interface. Changes in this thickness affected lipolysis of the emulsions in the in vitro small intestinal environment. The amount of free fatty acids released was 75.0, 64.9, and 56.7% for 0, 0.1, and 0.4% w/v chitosan-coated emulsions, respectively. Additionally, only the emulsions covered with chitosan (0.1–0.4% w/v) were stable for 60 days of storage at pH 4 and 25 °C. The additional chitosan-coating on the emulsions stabilized with the SNCs can serve as a strategy for food hydrocolloids, to enhance colloidal stability under acidic conditions and control digestion in the gastrointestinal tract.

Characterization of lipid emulsions during in vitro digestion in the presence of three types of nanocellulose

HypothesisNanocellulose (NC) has been a topic of significant interest due to its multiple applications, including that as a potential food ingredient. Due to the viscous property of NC and its potential use as emulsion stabilizers, presence of NC in food may affect properties and digestion of lipid emulsions systems. In this study, the behavior of three types of nanocellulose and its influence on lipid emulsions during digestion were investigated. ExperimentsThe changes in physicochemical characteristics (including particle size, microstructure, viscosity, and zeta potential) of the emulsions as well as the amount of free fatty acid released were studied and compared among the addition of different types/concentrations of fiber as well as digestion phases. FindingsThe colloidal stability of three types of NC differed during each digestion phase. Specifically, cellulose nanocrystals (CNC) formed hydrogel networks during the gastric phase, resulting in increased digesta viscosity. Cellulose nano-fibrils (CNF) were stable and had no morphological changes during digestion. TEMPO-oxidized cellulose nano-fibrils (TEMPO-CNF) de-swelled and showed aggregation at the gastric phase. Results showed that all three types of nanocellulose at high concentrations (1% CNF, 0.25–0.36% TEMPO-CNF or 2–3% CNC) delayed initial in vitro digestion of emulsions, though the final lipolysis extent was nearly the same amongst all (47–55%).

The simulated in vitro infant gastrointestinal digestion of droplets covered with milk fat globule membrane polar lipids concentrate

Milk fat globule membrane polar lipids (MPL) are increasingly used as the surface-active components for emulsions in many infant food products. However, the precise effect of the emulsifier MPL on the digestion of lipids during gastrointestinal digestion has not been elucidated. This study investigated the lipid digestion of droplets covered with MPL with different sizes in a simulated in vitro infant gastrointestinal digestion assay. The well-used surface-active component casein was used as a control. Four types of emulsions were formulated: small and large droplets covered with MPL concentrate (MPL-S and MPL-L, with volumetric means of 0.35 ± 0.01 and 4.04 ± 0.01 μm, respectively), and small and large droplets covered with casein (CN-S and CN-L, with volumetric means of 0.44 ± 0.01 and 4.09 ± 0.03 μm, respectively). The emulsions were subjected to in vitro gastrointestinal digestion using a semidynamic model mimicking infant digestion. Through the determination of particle size evolution, zeta-potential, and microstructure of emulsions, the lipid droplets covered with MPL were found to be more stable than that of the CN-S and CN-L during gastrointestinal digestion. Moreover, although CN-S and CN-L showed a higher initial lipolysis rate at the beginning of gastric digestion, droplets covered by MPL exhibited a significantly higher amount of free fatty acid release during later digestion. The amount of free fatty acid release of the emulsions in both gastric and intestinal digestion could be generally classified as MPL-S ≥ MPL-L > CN-S > CN-L. Our study highlights the crucial role of MPL in the efficient digestion of emulsions and brings new insight for the design of infant food products.

Flocculation of oil-in-water emulsions stabilised by milk protein ingredients under gastric conditions: Impact on in vitro intestinal lipid digestion

The effect of the gastric behaviour of protein-stabilised oil-in-water emulsions on intestinal lipid digestion was investigated using an in vitro dynamic gastric digestion model ‒ the human gastric simulator (HGS) and an intestinal model. Emulsions were prepared using milk protein concentrate (MPC), calcium-depleted MPC or sodium caseinate. In the MPC-stabilised emulsion, flocculation, induced by the milk-clotting enzyme pepsin, occurred after 10 min of digestion (at pH > 6) in the HGS. Closely knitted flocs of large size, which remained in the HGS throughout the gastric digestion, were formed. However, in emulsions stabilised by calcium-depleted MPC or sodium caseinate, flocculation occurred after approximately 40 min of digestion because of the low pH (∼pH 5); the flocs were relatively small and disintegrated after further digestion. The particle sizes of the gastric digesta mixtures obtained at each digestion time were in the order: MPC emulsion > calcium-depleted MPC emulsion > sodium caseinate emulsion. In contrast, the oil contents of the mixtures were in the order: MPC emulsion < calcium-depleted MPC emulsion < sodium caseinate emulsion, suggesting that the MPC emulsion had a slower release of oil droplets into the intestine than the calcium-depleted MPC and sodium caseinate emulsions. In the intestinal phase, the extent of lipid digestion followed the order: MPC emulsion < calcium-depleted MPC emulsion ≤ sodium caseinate emulsion. The results suggested that the structures and the size of the flocs induced by interactions between milk proteins and pepsin or acid during the gastric digestion of emulsions influence intestinal lipid digestion.

Gastrointestinal digestion and stability of submicron-sized emulsions stabilized using waxy maize starch crystals

We prepared Pickering emulsions using tricaprylin (TC) and waxy maize starch nanocrystals (SNCs). The SNCs were obtained using an acid hydrolysis method and subsequently modified with octenyl succinic anhydride (OSA), to stabilize the water/TC interface. The particle size (PS) of fabricated OSA-SNCs was ∼42 nm, and contact angle of OSA-SNCs at the interface was determined as ∼90° using a gel trapping technique. Only 0.15 wt% OSA-SNCs in the continuous phase of the emulsion effectively saturated the surface of the TC droplets (5 wt%) to achieve a stable Pickering emulsions (PS, ∼0.5 μm). Theoretically, a TC droplet was covered with ∼450 OSA-SNCs at the saturation point. The excess amount (≥0.15 wt%) of OSA-SNCs used to prepare the Pickering emulsions did not affect the digestion of the emulsions during the in vitro study in simulated gastrointestinal fluids and the stability during the 15-days storage at various conditions (pH: 4, 7, and 11; temperature: 4, 25, and 37 °C). Based on the storage results, the Pickering emulsions stabilized with OSA-SNCs were good to be stored in neutral/basic conditions under refrigeration. This study may serve as a basis for further research that aims for development of foods, cosmetics, and drugs to incorporate lipophilic bioactives.

Effect of degree of octenyl succinic anhydride (OSA) substitution on the digestion of emulsions and the bioaccessibility of β-carotene in OSA-modified-starch-stabilized-emulsions

The degree of substitution (DS) is one of the most important properties of octenyl succinic anhydride (OSA)-modified starch, in terms of optimizing its functionality in the application of delivery systems for lipophilic bioactive components. This study investigated the effect of the DS of OSA-modified starch on the in vitro digestion behavior and the β-carotene bioaccessibility in nanoemulsions stabilized by OSA-modified starches. Changes in the particle size and distribution, microstructure, zeta-potential, hydrolysis of the starch, and lipolysis in the emulsions during digestion as well as the bioaccessibility of β-carotene were determined. All the emulsions remained stable during the mouth stage and their particle size increased significantly after incubation under gastric conditions, with the extent of increase in the particle size being negatively correlated to the DS. Under gastric conditions, the emulsions stabilized by OSA-modified starches with higher DS values had less flocculation and coalescence, which could probably be attributed to the greater steric hindrance of branched amylopectin chains and the greater magnitudes of the negative zeta-potential in the presence of more OSA groups. The more rigid and compact surface structure formed by the OSA-modified starch with higher DS provide better protection against the biochemical conditions in the gastric fluid. When the DS increased from 0.0158 to 0.0416, the bioaccessibility of β-carotene was enhanced from 8.01 ± 0.88 to 20.39 ± 1.93%, which may have been due to a lower extent of starch digestion and a greater extent of lipid digestion in nanoemulsions stabilized by OSA-modified starch with higher DS values.

In vitro digestibility of heteroaggregated droplets coated with sodium caseinate and lactoferrin

Aggregation of droplets coated with oppositely charged proteins could be affected during emulsion digestion. Thus, emulsions stabilized by sodium caseinate, lactoferrin or heteroaggregated droplets formed from the mixture of both emulsions were evaluated by in vitro digestibility. Emulsions properties were analyzed in terms of stability, microstructure, particle size, surface charge and free fatty acids. Changes in physical properties at the different digestion steps depended on the emulsifier properties and were probably attributed to physico-chemical environment conditions and protein hydrolysis. The heteroaggregates undid in simple emulsions at the gastric phase due to the electrostatic repulsion between the proteins at low pH. Free fatty acids release depended on emulsifier properties, in addition to the presence of bile salts. Heteroaggregates presented the lowest extent of lipid digestion followed by droplets coated with lactoferrin. These results may be useful for the design of food matrices with a decreased digestibility.

Pectin and gastric pH interactively affect DHA-rich emulsion in vitro digestion microstructure, digestibility and bioaccessibility

Lipid digestibility and bioaccessibility (i.e. solubilization) may be impacted by various factors. For example, dietary fibres may interact with lipids and other digestive molecules during gastrointestinal digestion and gastric pH may impact lipid droplet microstructure. Thus, these parameters may have implications for the release and uptake of bioactive fatty acids such as DHA. This study investigated how apple pectin (0.00, 5.68, or 100.00 mg/5.0 g emulsion), combined with variable gastric pH (2.0, 3.0 or 4.8), impacted the in vitro digestion of a DHA-rich algal oil lecithin-stabilized emulsion (10:1.2:88.8 oil:lecithin:water, D3,2 = 0.137 ± 0.001 nm). Low gastric pH (2.0 and 3.0) induced severe emulsion destabilization. However, the addition of a low-level of pectin (5.68 mg/5.0 g emulsion) reduced the destabilization at pH 3.0. Small lipid droplets, maintained either by this low-level of pectin at pH 3.0 or by a higher gastric pH (4.8), were associated with greater early (p < 0.05), but not eventual (p > 0.05) duodenal lipolysis (pH 7.0) and higher DHA bioaccessibility (>69%, p < 0.05). Samples containing 100.00 mg pectin/5.0 g emulsion had the lowest overall lipolysis and DHA bioaccessibility across all pH values (p < 0.05). Therefore, pectin content and gastric pH interactively impacted emulsion digestion. The presence of applesauce, matched for pectin concentration, further destabilized the emulsion and limited lipid digestibility and DHA bioaccessibility, compared to the pectin-only samples. Overall, a stable emulsion microstructure during gastric digestion promoted in vitro lipid digestibility and DHA bioaccessibility.

Influence of emulsifier type on the in vitro digestion of fish oil-in-water emulsions in the presence of an anionic marine polysaccharide (fucoidan): Caseinate, whey protein, lecithin, or Tween 80

The influence of an anionic marine polysaccharide (fucoidan) on the gastrointestinal fate of emulsified fish oils stabilized by different types of natural and synthetic emulsifier was examined: whey protein isolate (WPI); caseinate; lecithin; Tween 80. Oil-in-water emulsions in the absence and presence of fucoidan were passed through a simulated gastrointestinal tract (GIT) that included mouth, stomach, and small intestine phases. The change in droplet properties (particle size, charge, and organization) was measured throughout the GIT and the rate and extent of lipid digestion was measured in the small intestine phase. The presence of fucoidan increased the initial digestion rate of caseinate- and WPI-stabilized emulsions due to its ability to modulate lipid droplet aggregation. The fucoidan appeared to suppress isoelectric aggregation of the droplets, which increased the surface area of lipids available for the lipase molecules. On the other hand, the presence of fucoidan had little impact on the digestion of emulsions stabilized by lecithin or Tween 80, since it did not strongly impact the lipid droplet aggregation state. These results have important implications for the fabrication of functional foods and beverages that can control lipid digestion in the gastrointestinal tract.

Influence of interfacial and bulk properties of cellulose ethers on lipolysis of oil-in-water emulsions

Cellulose ethers are usually used as secondary emulsifiers. Different types of commercial hydroxypropylmethylcellulose (HPMC) have been used here as the main emulsifier of oil-in-water emulsions to probe their impact on the lipid digestibility under simulated intestinal conditions. The droplet size distribution and ζ-potential of the emulsions subjected to in-vitro lipolysis have been compared with that of control samples (non-digested). The lipolysis has been quantified over time by means of the pH-stat method. The displacement of HPMC from the oil–water interface by bile salts has been assessed by interfacial tension technique. Results show that HPMC delays the lipid digestion of emulsions regardless of the Mw and methoxyl content. The destabilisation of emulsions under intestinal conditions as well as the resistance of HPMC to be displaced from the emulsion interface by bile salts may contribute to this feature. This provides new insights into the mechanisms whereby dietary fibre reduces fat absorption.

Effects of inhomogeneity on triglyceride digestion of emulsions using an in vitro digestion model (Tiny TIM).

The colloidal behaviour and extent of lipolysis of various emulsions stabilized by whey protein and Tween were studied using the TNO Intestinal Model (TIM) extended with a purposely designed gastric compartment. The in vitro results suggest that creaming of a fatty layer in the gastric region causes a delay in fat entering the small intestinal region, delays and reduces the free fatty acid content in the small intestinal lumen and delays fat absorption. It was shown that controlling the pH with pig gastric juice instead of simulated gastric juice delayed creaming of the emulsions significantly, which resulted in faster gastric lipolysis. However, because the digestive conditions are not adjusted by physiological regulation mechanisms such as the regulation of gastric emptying by the detection of nutrients in the small intestine, care must be taken to translate these results to the in vivo reality. It is expected that the differences between the systems will be tempered by the physiological feedback regulation mechanisms of digestion.

Comparative behavior of protein or polysaccharide stabilized emulsion under in vitro gastrointestinal conditions

In the present work, an in vitro model digestion was used to compare the behavior of emulsions stabilized by proteins or polysaccharide upon digestion and to analyze its relationship with the kinetics and extent of lipid digestion. Oil/water emulsions were prepared using different emulsifiers (β-lactoglobulin, soy protein isolate and hydroxypropylmethylcellulose (HPMC)). The emulsion digestion was carried out in two continuous stages at 37 °C: 1) under simulated gastric conditions (1 h) using pepsin and phosphatidylcholine (simulated gastric fluid: pH 2.5, NaCl, NaH2PO4, KCl and CaCl2) and 2) under simulated intestinal conditions (1 h) with bile salts, pancreatic lipase, trypsin and chymotrypsin (simulated intestinal fluid: pH 7.0, K2HPO4, NaCl and CaCl2). The changes in the particle size distributions, the interfacial area and their microstructures were analyzed as a function of the digestion time. The free fatty acid release during the simulated intestinal stage was also determined and an empirical model was fitted to estimate different kinetic parameters. Irrespective of the composition/structure of emulsions, the initial surface area was found to determine the initial rate of lipolysis. Soy protein was the protein that forms the most resistant emulsion to digestion, showing a degree of free fatty acid release similar to HPMC, which is a non digestible emulsifier. The results are discussed on the basis of the role of bile salts and its effect on oil/water interfaces.

Influence of lipid type on gastrointestinal fate of oil-in-water emulsions: In vitro digestion study

The potential gastrointestinal fate of oil-in-water emulsions containing lipid phases from different sources was examined: vegetable oils (corn, olive, sunflower, and canola oil); marine oils (fish and krill oil); flavor oils (orange and lemon oil); and, medium chain triglycerides (MCT). The lowest rates and extents of lipid digestion were observed for emulsified flavor oil, followed by emulsified krill oil. There was no appreciable difference between the final amounts of free fatty acids released for emulsified digestible oils. Differences in the digestibility of emulsions prepared using different oils were attributed to differences in their compositions, e.g., fatty acid chain length and unsaturation. The particle size distribution, particle charge, microstructure, and macroscopic appearance of the emulsions during passage through the simulated GIT depended on oil type. The results of this study may facilitate the design of functional foods that control the digestion and absorption of triglycerides, as well as the bioaccessibility of hydrophobic bioactives.

A Better Understanding of the Factors Affecting In vitro Lipolysis Using Static Mono-compartmental Models

In vitro lipolysis studies are the most common approach to investigate digestion profiles and microstructure breakdown of emulsion-based functional foods after ingestion. This study investigated the difference between two static mono-compartmental models, the pH stat titration and a jar digestion model, as tools to evaluate lipolysis in vitro. Two oil-in-water emulsions, consisting of long- or medium-chain triglycerides, were used in the study. Factors essential to the pH-stat model were evaluated, including calcium concentration and mode of addition, i.e. initial or continuous. Continuous addition of calcium resulted in improved control of free fatty acid release kinetics. Results also indicated that titration at pH 9 alleviates the underestimation of free fatty acid release with the pH-stat model. The research clearly highlighted the differences between the models, and the results will help researchers identify the most appropriate model to use for in vitro digestion of emulsions.

The structure of infant formulas impacts their lipolysis, proteolysis and disintegration during in vitro gastric digestion

Milk lipids supply most of the calories necessary for newborn growth in maternal milk or infant formulas. The chemical composition of infant formulas has been optimized but not the structure of the emulsion. There is still a major difference between the native emulsions of milk fat globules and processed submicronic emulsions in infant formulas. This difference may modify the kinetics of digestion of emulsions in newborns and influence lipid metabolism. To check this, semi-dynamic gastric in vitro digestions were conducted on three matrices: a standardized milk emulsion containing native milk fat globules referred to as minimally-processed emulsion and two processed model infant formulas (homogenized or homogenized/pasteurized). Gastric conditions mimicked those reported in newborns. The minimally-processed emulsion was lipolyzed and proteolyzed slower than processed formulas. The difference in initial structure persisted during digestion. The surface of the droplets was the key parameter to control gastric lipolysis kinetics, the pattern of released fatty acids and proteolysis by faster hydrolysis of adsorbed proteins.

In vitro digestion of emulsions: high spatiotemporal resolution using synchrotron SAXS.

Although the biochemical processes of lipid digestion are well-known, the biophysical ones, responsible for the assembly of molecules into functional structures, lack studies resolving both time and space scales. About 35 years ago, the seminal microscopy study of Patton and Carey constituted a major advance to reach this goal. Nowadays, new perspectives arise from the availability of large facilities scattering techniques, able to monitor the dynamics of multi-scale assemblies with unprecedented resolutions. The present small angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) study focused on the roles of the emulsifier and triglyceride in the formation of lipid assemblies during emulsion digestion in vitro. By developing several interpretations of the data in the whole space range (qualitative, shape-dependent and shape-independent models), the characteristic size of the assemblies and their transition times were obtained, which depended on the triglyceride, but not on the emulsifier. The major assembly formed was found to be a spherical mixed micelle, but vesicle was also found to coexist throughout the digestion, although in a lower proportion. The quantitative determination of the sizes and proportions of these assemblies, as well as the evolution of these characteristics during digestion are precious information for nutritional sciences, as these assemblies are the vehicles of lipophilic nutrients and micronutrients towards their absorption site.

Effects of Chitosan Addition on In Vitro Digestibility of Protein-Coated Lipid Droplets

In this study, we characterized the protein-coated lipid droplets with/without cationic polysaccharide under in vitro oral, gastric, and small intestinal conditions. The effects of chitosan (CHI) addition on the mean particle diameter, zeta-potential, micro-structure, rheological properties, microstructure and lipid digestion of emulsions containing whey protein isolate (WPI) at pH 6.5 or 3.0 were investigated. At pH 6.5, the protein charge was negative, strong electrostatic attraction between the oppositely charged CHI and WPI led to the increase in emulsion viscosity and size, while at pH 3.0, both CHI and WPI were positively charged, CHI molecules could not be attracted onto the surface of positively charged protein-coated droplets, and it has weaker effect on the interfacial properties of emulsions. The results showed that WPI–CHI electrostatic interactions played an important role on the physical property, microstructure and lipid digestion of protein-coated lipid droplets. In the simulated gastrointestinal model, the structures were more stable and the lipid digestion rates decreased significantly in WPI–CHI stabilized emulsions compared to WPI-stabilized emulsions. These results suggest that mixed emulsions can be used to design delivery systems for controlling the physicochemical properties of bioactive lipophilic compounds in the food and pharmaceutical industries.