Digestion Behavior Research Articles

Stability and in vitro digestion behavior of astaxanthin-loaded Pickering emulsions stabilized by OSA-modified starch: Influence of oil phase content.

Astaxanthin, a lipid-soluble carotenoid, is widely recognized for its health-promoting properties. However, its use in functional foods is limited due to its low water solubility, chemical instability, and poor bioavailability. This study evaluated the potential of esterified starch-stabilized emulsions as astaxanthin carriers. The effects of the oil phase content on the emulsion properties, stability, and in vitro digestion behavior of the emulsions were investigated. All emulsions exhibited adequate encapsulation efficiency (>80%) for astaxanthin. Moreover, the particle size and viscosity of the emulsions increased with an increasing oil phase content. The emulsion with a 10% oil phase content (E-10%) showed high retention of astaxanthin (>40%) under the temperature, pH, and ionic strength conditions tested and long-term stability (42days). On the other hand, the release of free fatty acids and bioaccessibility of astaxanthin were negatively correlated with the oil phase content. And the bioaccessibility of astaxanthin was increased to 11.66% (for E-10%). Under a constant emulsifier concentration, E-10% and E-20% exhibited a thicker interfacial layer at the oil/water interface. Based on this, a smaller particle size may favor oil droplet dispersion and inhibit droplet floatation and aggregation, improving emulsion stability. Therefore, this study provides useful information on the effect of the oil phase content in esterified starch-stabilized Pickering emulsion delivery systems.

Fish oil-loaded silver carp scale gelatin-stabilized emulsions with vitamins for the delivery of curcumin

The encapsulation of curcumin in the emulsions has attracted much attention in functional food development. Herein, the fish oil-loaded silver carp scale gelatin-stabilized emulsions with vitamins were explored for the delivery of curcumin. The curcumin encapsulation had no obvious effect on the formation, storage stability, lipid oxidation, and in vitro droplet digestion behaviors of the emulsions. Both vitamin C (VC) and vitamin E (VE) additions had obvious effects on the peroxidation values of the emulsions: VC + VE < VC < VE < Control < fish oil. The accumulative free fatty acid release percentages were dependent on the vitamins: VC (89.6 ± 1.1%) > Control (86.1 ± 1.0%) > VC + VE (80.5 ± 0.8%) > VE (76.4 ± 1.2%). The emulsions’ curcumin retention at room temperature and in vitro digestion behaviors (transformation, bioaccessibility, and bioaccessibility index) depended on vitamin additions: VC + VE ≈ VC > VE ≈ Control. This work was beneficial for the development of fish gelatin-stabilized emulsions to deliver curcumin.

Whey Protein Hydrogels and Emulsion Gels with Anthocyanins and/or Goji Oil: Formation, Characterization and In Vitro Digestion Behavior.

Whey protein isolate (WPI) has functional properties such as gelation and emulsification. Emulsion gels combine the benefits of both emulsions and hydrogels. In this study, WPI hydrogels and emulsion gels were developed with goji oil (GO) as the oil phase by the inclusion of blueberry extract (BE) in the protein matrix. Heat-denatured WPI (hWPI) particles and emulsions were characterized in terms of size distribution, ζ-potential, interfacial protein, and anthocyanin partition. The inclusion of anthocyanins-rich blueberry extract led to the aggregation of hWPI particles, but it also increased the interfacial protein of 10% goji oil emulsions to 20% and decreased their size distribution to 120 and 325 nm. WPI hydrogels and emulsion gels were analyzed in terms of their water-holding capacity, which decreased from 98% to 82% with the addition of blueberry extract and goji oil. Syneresis, rheological, and morphological characteristics were also analyzed. The gelation time of hWPI particles and emulsions was shortened from 24 h to 12 h when incorporating blueberry extract to form a dense network. The network was the most homogeneous and densest in the presence of 3% blueberry extract and 5% goji oil. The co-inclusion of blueberry extract and goji oil increased the syneresis during the freeze-thaw cycles, with the values rising from 13% to 36% for 5% BE hydrogel and BE-containing emulsion gels after the first cycle. All WPI hydrogels and emulsion gels exhibit predominantly elastic behavior. Moreover, anthocyanin release, antioxidant activity, and the fatty acid composition profile were also analyzed during in vitro digestion. Soluble and free anthocyanins in the digested medium were reduced with the goji oil content but increased with the blueberry extract content. The stability of polyunsaturated fatty acids in the digested medium was improved by the addition of blueberry extract. The antioxidant activity of the digested medium increased with the content of blueberry extract but decreased with the content of goji oil. The ABTS∙+ scavenging capacities decreased from 63% to 49% by increasing the content of GO from 0% to 10% and they increased from 48% to 57% for 5% BE and 10% GO emulsion gels as the BE content increased from 0% to 5% after 6 h of digestion. The data gathered should provide valuable insights for future efforts to co-encapsulate hydrophilic and hydrophobic agents, thereby enhancing their stability, bioavailability, and functional properties for potential applications in food industries.

Physicochemical characterization, bioactive compounds, and in vitro digestion characteristics of Moringa oleifera seed oil: a comprehensive investigation

AbstractBACKGROUNDMoringa oleifera is a wild plant belonging to the genus Moringa and the family Moringaceae, which possesses valuable nutritional and medicinal properties and is inexpensive. The present study aimed to provide a comprehensive assessment of the potential of M. oleifera seed oil (MoSO) as a food ingredient by investigating its physicochemical properties, bioactivity, and in vitro digestion characteristics.RESULTSThe results revealed that MoSO exhibited a high oleic acid content, which constituted 72.06 ± 0.17% of the total fatty acid content. The oil consisted of ten primary triacylglycerols, with O‐O‐O (40.64 ± 0.41%), Do‐O‐O (17.22 ± 0.17%), O‐O‐P (14.92 ± 0.15%) and Eo‐O‐P (10.50 ± 0.10%) being the most abundant. It contained certain bioactive compounds, such as tocopherols (224.04 ± 1.78 mg/kg) and phytosterols (2155.65 ± 23.45 mg/kg). The in vitro digestion behavior of MoSO emulsion was also investigated. The maximum release of free fatty acids in MoSO was 90.14 ± 2.77%, surpassing that observed in soybean oil (85.62 ± 3.01%). Moringa oleifera seed oil also exhibited a substantial release of oleic acid and greater bioaccessibility.CONCLUSIONThese findings contribute to the current knowledge on MoSO as a promising candidate for a high‐quality edible vegetable oil. © 2025 Society of Chemical Industry.

Hydrolysis and transport characteristics of starch inclusion complexes with long-chain alkyl gallates: Controlled two-step release of gallic acid and retardation of starch digestion.

Corn starch inclusion complexes of alkyl gallates (typical phenololipid representatives), including stearyl gallate, dodecyl gallate, octyl gallate, and hexadecyl gallate, were synthesized by using a heat treatment method. Such inclusion complexes exhibited significantly improved two-step release properties for gallic acid. In other words, gallic acid was generated via the breakdown of alkyl gallates that were released from inclusion complexes in an everted rat intestinal sac model, as determined by HPLC-UV analysis. The produced gallic acid could subsequently pass through intestinal membranes. On the other hand, a glucose oxidase-peroxidase analysis revealed that starch inclusion complexes can slow down starch digestion by increasing the proportion of resistant starch (from 12.2% to 14.5-30.8%) and decreasing the proportion of rapidly digestible starch (from 51.2% to 39.4-49.2%). Importantly, the two-step release characteristics of gallic acid and the retardation behavior of starch digestion can be easily regulated by modifying the acyl carbon chain length.

Effect of non-covalent and covalent complexation on structure, functional properties and digestive behavior of soybean protein isolate-soybean isoflavone complexes

Effect of non-covalent and covalent complexation on structure, functional properties and digestive behavior of soybean protein isolate-soybean isoflavone complexes

Isoflavones biotransformation and flavor improvement of soymilk fermented by selected lactic acid bacteria and dynamic in vitro protein digestion behavior

In this study, the improvement of isoflavone biotransformation, flavor and dynamic in vitro digestive properties of soymilk fermented by Lactiplantibacillus plantarum and its co-fermentation with Streptococcus thermophilus or Lactobacillus rhamnosus were investigated. Herein,13 strains of L. plantarum, numbered L.p.1 to L.p.13, were compared. Given that L.p.12 exhibited superior probiotic properties and β-glucosidase activity, its efficiency in converting conjugated glycoside isoflavones to aglycones was more remarkable, thus L.p.12 was selected for in-depth study. Moreover, compared to single-fermentation, γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) revealed highest concentrations achieved 336.80 mg/kg in soymilk fermented by L.p.12 and L. rhamnosus (L.p.12+LR). Additionally, co-fermentation, especially fermented by L.p.12 and S. thermophilus (L.p.12+ST), could significantly reduce the presence of off-flavors like hexanal and heptanal. Furthermore, co-fermentation (L.p.12+ST) achieved highest protein digestibility, up to 85.85%, and released more active bioactive peptides after gastrointestinal digestion. Collectively, these findings underscore that optimizing soymilk fermentation strains could improve soymilk nutrition and functionality.

Sequentially bidirectional gastrovascular flows in intricately branched digestive tract of planocerid flatworms.

Polyclad flatworms possess an intricately branched digestive system combining features of a gastrovascular cavity as well as a gastrointestinal tract. Nonetheless, the functions of this system remain unconfirmed, due to a lack of effective observation methods. This paper presents a novel staining method to facilitate the analysis of this highly branched digestive system. Video recordings obtained during ingestion revealed sequentially bidirectional gastrovascular flows and a corresponding occurrence of regular contractions. Tissue sections revealed that the contractions can be attributed to a radial arrangement of muscles around the gastrointestinal tract. The highly branched digestive system of the flatworm revealed evidence of bidirectional flow and sequential peristalsis, which may allow for a diet of greater diversity than is possible in animals with only a gastrovascular cavity. The proposed staining technique opens up new avenues for research on the digestive behavior of lower organisms.

Microplastics as an Emerging Potential Threat: Toxicity, Life Cycle Assessment, and Management.

The pervasiveness of microplastics (MPs) in terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems has become a significant environmental concern in recent years. Because of their slow rate of disposal, MPs are ubiquitous in the environment. As a consequence of indiscriminate use, landfill deposits, and inadequate recycling methods, MP production and environmental accumulation are expanding at an alarming rate, resulting in a range of economic, social, and environmental repercussions. Aquatic organisms, including fish and various crustaceans, consume MPs, which are ultimately consumed by humans at the tertiary level of the food chain. Blocking the digestive tracts, disrupting digestive behavior, and ultimately reducing the reproductive growth of entire living organisms are all consequences of this phenomenon. In order to assess the potential environmental impacts and the resources required for the life of a plastic product, the importance of life cycle assessment (LCA) and circularity is underscored. MPs-related ecosystem degradation has not yet been adequately incorporated into LCA, a tool for evaluating the environmental performance of product and technology life cycles. It is a technique that is designed to quantify the environmental effects of a product from its inception to its demise, and it is frequently employed in the context of plastics. The control of MPs is necessary due to the growing concern that MPs pose as a newly emergent potential threat. This is due to the consequences of their use. This paper provides a critical analysis of the formation, distribution, and methods used for detecting MPs. The effects of MPs on ecosystems and human health are also discussed, which posed a great challenge to conduct an LCA related to MPs. The socio-economic impacts of MPs and their management are also discussed. This paper paves the way for understanding the ecotoxicological impacts of the emerging MP threat and their associated issues to LCA and limits the environmental impact of plastic.

Influence of fat globules structure on the physicochemical properties and digestive characteristics in dairy products: A study on liquid cow milk, semi‐liquid yoghurt and semi‐solid cheese

The physicochemical properties and in vitro digestion behaviours analysis of dairy matrices (liquid cow milk, semi‐liquid yoghurt and semi‐solid cheese) with different fat globules were evaluated. Yoghurt and cheese with large/small‐sized fat globules were produced with raw (~4 μm) and homogenised cow milk (~0.40 μm). During the whole in vitro digestion, small‐sized dairy matrices had a higher lipolysis degree (~70–83%) compared to large‐sized ones (~55–77%) during the whole digestion. Small‐sized dairy matrices showed greater in vitro proteolysis and more porous protein matrix compared to large‐size ones. Dairy matrices with different fat globules exhibited different digestive behaviours, helping design lipid structures in different food matrices and their application in regulating digestive kinetics.

Comparison of extraction process, physicochemical properties, and in vitro digestion characteristics of chia seed mucilage polysaccharide.

The study explored five (acidic, alkaline, heating, ionic liquid, and urea solvent) extraction methods' effects on chia seed mucilage polysaccharide (CSM), an anionic polymeric macromolecule, regarding its physicochemical properties, structure, and digestion behavior. The results showed that extraction parameters have a considerable effect on modulating CSM properties. Significant differences emerged in the predominant chemical compositions: the carbohydrates and protein content ranged from 49.20±0.06% to 85.81±0.03%, and 3.20±0.13% to 14.57±0.30%, respectively. The structural analysis revealed that alkaline heating treatment facilitated the formation of protein-polysaccharide conjugates, resulting in reduced particle size, enhanced ζ-potential, and improved thermal stability (194.72±2.19J/g). The crystallinity of CSM varied, peaking at 42.9±0.22% without pH adjustment and heating. CSM extracted using 6M urea exhibited the lowest protein content, and crystallinity (25.50±0.09%), coupled with the highest gastrointestinal digestion rate and poorest thermal stability (with a carbohydrate degradability of 24.223±1.78% and enthalpy value of 62.82±0.32J/g). The CSM obtained under alkaline heating showed minute particles (201.1±10.35μm), the highest ζ-potential absolute value (20.95±2.28mV), and robust thermal stability (194.72±2.19J/g of enthalpy value), which is ideal for stabilizing emulsions or encapsulating thermolabile substances. Additionally, compared to monovalent cations‑sodium ions, divalent cations‑magnesium ions, is more tend to aggregate the CSM structure, resulting in larger molecular particles and a higher protein content. Elevated ionic concentration further diminished thermal stability. These findings suggest that CSM is a customizable, multi-purpose polymer that can be extracted in various ways based on the end-product requirements.

Real-time tracking of the adsorption and degradation behavior of bovine serum albumin, casein, and fibrinogen on the lipid layer by optical interferometry.

Different kinds of proteins interact with the digestible lipids in various ways, affecting the adsorption behavior of proteins and digestion. The ordered porous layer interferometry (OPLI) system was constructed by the silica colloidal crystal (SCC) films used to monitor the real-time binding assessment between bovine serum albumin (BSA), casein, fibrinogen, and triolein. The OPLI system reflected the changes in protein mass on the SCC films in real time through the migration of the interference spectrum of the SCC films, which was converted into the changes in optical thickness (ΔOT) that can be monitored. OPLI systematically studied the degradation of proteins by trypsin and found that the lipid layer enhanced the hydrolysis of trypsin to BSA and fibrinogen but weakened the degradation of trypsin to casein. The high OT of the lipid layer (10.45 nm) indicated that trypsin was more likely to adhere to the casein surface on the lipid layer than to hydrolyze casein. In contrast, the reduced OT (-6.40 nm) on the SCC films indicated that trypsin was more inclined to hydrolyze casein than to attach to casein. The OPLI system provided the technical basis for real-time tracking of protein hydrolysis behavior in complex food systems.

Theabrownin/whey protein isolate complex coacervate strengthens C2C12 cell proliferation via modulation of energy metabolism and mitochondrial apoptosis.

Theabrownin (TB)-whey protein isolate (WPI) complex coacervates (TW) were firstly prepared to investigate the regulatory effects on skeletal muscle. The binding of TB to WPI reached saturation with the strongest electrostatic interaction at the ratio of 10:1. The formation of TW was driven by electrostatic interactions with the aid of hydrogen bonding and hydrophobic interactions, and the digestion behavior of TW was investigated based on in vitro gastrointestinal and CaCO2 cell models. The regulatory effect of TW on muscle cells was investigated by C2C12 cell assay. Cell cycle analysis showed that TW promoted the transition of skeletal muscle cells from proliferative state to differentiated state. Immunofluorescence and gene expression revealed that TW positively regulated myogenic regulatory factors, contributing to myofiber formation. Moreover, TW activated the intracellular TCA cycling and oxidative phosphorylation, providing energy for skeletal muscle regeneration and repair. Mechanistically, TW inhibited the release of cytochrome C from mitochondria to cytoplasm through the Bcl-2/Cytochrome C/Cleaved-Caspase-3 pathway, exhibiting a protective effect on skeletal muscle cells. In the future, the molecular mechanism of TW enhancing skeletal muscle function should be validated through aging animal models and clinical trials and expand its therapeutic application for muscle health in functional food and dietary supplements.

Enhancing the texture and modulating digestive behavior of gluten-free quinoa sponge cakes via microwave-assisted alkaline amino acid treatment

Enhancing the texture and modulating digestive behavior of gluten-free quinoa sponge cakes via microwave-assisted alkaline amino acid treatment

New insights into adlay seed bran polysaccharides: Effects of enzyme-assisted Aspergillus niger solid-state fermentation on its structural features, simulated gastrointestinal digestion, and prebiotic activity

Adlay seed bran, typically discarded or used as animal feed, represents a significant resource waste. This study investigates the structural and physicochemical properties, in vitro digestive behavior, and fecal fermentation profiles of adlay seed bran polysaccharides (ASBPs) prepared using different methods. These methods include hot water extraction, Aspergillus niger solid-state fermentation (SSF), and enzyme-assisted SSF with β-glucosidase, cellulase, and xylanase, referred to as ASBP, ASBP-F, ASBP-GF, ASBP-CF, and ASBP-XF, respectively. Results showed that enzyme-assisted SSF with A. niger improved extraction efficiency and uniformity of ASBPs, increasing total neutral sugars, uronic acids, mannose, and galactose while reducing glucose content, molecular weight, and particle size. ASBP-CF had the best extraction rate, sugar content, lowest molecular weight, finest uniformity, and smallest particle size. In simulated digestion tests, all ASBP variants were stable in stomach and small intestine conditions but degradable by human fecal microbiota, showing varying fermentability levels. ASBPs increased Bacteroidetes populations, inhibited Proteobacteria growth, and enhanced short-chain fatty acid (SCFAs) production, with ASBP-CF showing the highest fermentability and prebiotic efficacy. ASBP-CF was particularly effective in promoting beneficial bacteria like Bacteroides and restraining harmful bacteria such as Escherichia_Shigella, producing more SCFAs during fermentation. These findings suggest that ASBP-CF has potential as a dietary supplement to improve gut health, presenting a high-value utilization strategy for adlay seed bran.

Effects of different iron saturations on biochemical properties of bovine lactoferrin (BLF) and on the gastrointestinal digestion of simulated in vitro feline model

Lactoferrin (LF) is an important bioactive protein widely found in biological secretions with excellent health benefits. The study investigated biochemical properties of bovine lactoferrin (BLF) with different iron levels, and the digestive properties of BLF in vitro feline digestion model. It was designed with 5 levels of iron saturation BLF, including Apo-BLF (<5%), Native-BLF (15–20%), 50%-BLF, 75%-BLF, Holo-BLF (>85%). As the iron levels of BLF increased, the zeta potential increased, particle size decreased, thermal stability increased, and the protein system became more stable. Changes in iron levels had little impact on the secondary structure, but had a significant effect on the protein's tertiary structure. Electrophoresis and peptide distribution results showed that the Holo-BLF group had better anti-digestive effects, followed by the 75%-BLF group. Holo-BLF group had higher peptide molecular weights compared to other groups. Higher iron saturation levels improved BLF's resistance to digestion in the stomach. The free amino acids and free amino produced during intestinal digestion were greater than those produced during gastric digestion, with the Apo-BLF and Native-BLF groups releasing more than other groups. This study emphasizes the biochemical properties of BLF with different iron levels and provides the essential digestive behavior information of degradation patterns and changes in functional properties at gastric and intestinal digestion stage in vitro feline model. These insights would further enhance the understanding of the information of BLF at different iron levels, which is essential for the future application of BLF in pet food.

Formation of whey protein, pectin, and chlorogenic acid ternary complexes and their application in emulsions

Physicochemical properties, stability, and digestive behavior of lycopene-loaded emulsions prepared by ternary complexes fabricated with different mixing sequences based on whey protein isolate (WPI), high methoxyl pectin (HMP), and chlorogenic acid (CA) were investigated. Spectroscopic and molecular docking analyses confirmed the non-covalent interactions among the compounds within the ternary complexes, as well as the conformational changes in the protein induced by the mixing sequence. The interfacial tension (6.92–9.44 mN/m) influenced by the different mixing sequences of WPI, HMP and CA was HMP-CA-WPI > WPI-CA-HMP > WPI-HMP-CA, and the size of emulsions stabilized by HMP-CA-WPI was approximately 10 nm larger than that of the other two. Complexes with mixing sequence of HMP, CA and WPI outperformed in antioxidant properties (Ferric reducing power absorbance 0.43, ABTS∙ radical scavenging activity 66.04 %), lycopene retention rate (after UV irradiation 85.11 %, after thermal treatment 83.15 %), and storage stability of emulsions than those prepared by WPI-HMP-CA and WPI-CA-HMP. Emulsions stabilized by different ternary complexes showed similar free fatty acid release profiles (39.62 %–41.59 %) and lycopene bio-accessibility (28.87 %–29.94 %) during digestion. This study mat offer novel insights for the rational utilization in emulsions of ternary complexes based on proteins, polysaccharides, and phenolic acids.

Designing ferulic acid-functionalized dual protein conjugates: Process-induced changes, structural interplays, and sustainable calcium fortification

This study investigates the structural changes and covalent interactions of rice glutelin and egg white proteins with ferulic acid, considering the effects of germination and whisking times. Using ternary phase diagrams, we analyzed the antioxidant properties and in vitro digestive behaviors of these protein-ferulic acid conjugates. Increased germination time enhanced the conjugate potential of rice glutelin, while prolonged whisking time increased the molecular flexibility of egg white proteins. The optimal ratio of rice glutelin to egg white proteins (6:4) resulted in higher surface hydrophobicity. In vitro digestion showed that a higher proportion of rice glutelin aids gastric digestion, while more egg white protein supports intestinal hydrolysis. Extended germination time reduced particle size and antioxidant capacities during digestion but negatively impacted calcium loading from eggshells. These findings highlight the potential of tailored protein-ferulic acid conjugates for improved functional properties and food applications.

Structure changes and carotenoids release of tomato during in vitro dynamic digestion: Effect of heating and oil addition

There is still a gap between the food processing and carotenoids release and structure degradation during digestion. This study investigated the effect of heating and coconut oil addition on the digestion behavior of tomatoes during in vitro dynamic digestion. Coconut oil and heating increased gastric retention, and the value of heat-treated tomatoes with coconut oil maintained at a highest level throughout the gastric digestion. The contents of lycopene and β-carotene increased after heating and coconut oil addition. After stimulated intestinal digestion, coconut oil and heating increased the particle size of tomato slurry. Besides, heat-treated tomatoes released more particles under the light microscopy and SEM observation, while the oil-treated tomatoes showed rougher cell surfaces. Heating and coconut oil also significantly increased the bioaccessibility of lycopene to 70 % ± 5 % and 81 % ± 4 %, respectively. These findings would provide theoretical guidance to develop tomato-derived foods with high bioaccessibility.

In vitro digestive behavior of emulsifier-stabilized excipient emulsions affects the bioaccessibility of flavonoids.

Flavonoids, found in common vegetables and fruits, have health benefits that are often limited by their low bioavailability. Excipient emulsions provide an effective strategy to overcome these obstacles. However, the nature of the emulsifier used to formulate excipient emulsions and the chemical structure of the flavonoids both affect the bioaccessibility of the flavonoids. The purpose of this study was to investigate the impact of the interfacial properties of excipient emulsions on the in vitro gastrointestinal fate of representative structural flavonoids (quercetin, kaempferol, and apigenin) through the INFOGEST method. Tween 80 (TW80) (a nonionic surfactant) was more effective at reducing the oil-water interfacial tension than whey protein isolate (WPI) (a protein-based emulsifier) or octenyl succinic anhydride (OSA)-modified starch (MS) (a polysaccharide-based emulsifier). Moreover, TW80 created excipient emulsions with smaller oil droplets, which were more resistant to oral and gastric conditions. The WPI-emulsions underwent severe flocculation in the gastric phase, leading to an appreciable increase in particle size (from 220 to 3000 nm). The TW80-coated oil droplets were more digestible than WPI- or MS-coated ones. This was attributed to the larger lipid surface area for lipase attachment. The bioaccessibility of quercetin, kaempferol, and apigenin was also affected by emulsifiers: TW 80 (25% to 45%) > WPI (14% to 29%) ≈ MS (15% to 25%). Flavonoid bioaccessibility appeared to be related to their molecular properties. This study provides guidance for the design of effective excipient emulsions to enhance the bioavailability of flavonoids. © 2024 Society of Chemical Industry.