Wage Differentials Research Articles

Gender Wage Gap among Rural Non-farm Sector Employees in India: Evidence from Nationally Representative Survey

This article examines the gender-wise work participation rate and evaluates the wage disparity between male and female workers employed as either regular or casual employees in rural non-farm sectors. Based on the National Sample Survey data of 2004–2005 and 2019–2020, it is found that the gender inequality (against women) in employment opportunity is not only prevalent in the rural non-farm labour market but also on the rise during the last one and a half decades. The perceived difference in human capabilities between women and men and the non-availability of enough job opportunities could be a major driver of this inequality, apart from the existing social stigma in hiring the women in the rural labour market. This is reflected by the rise in the mean wage difference between two genders during 2004–2005 and 2019–2020. Both the mean and the quantile decomposition results suggest that a higher percentage of gender wage differentials is due to endowment components or labour productivity differences. Because of the existence of the ‘sticky floor’ phenomenon, the wage disparity is relatively larger at the bottom end of the earning distribution. But it reduces when we stride towards higher quintiles on the wage distribution. Hence, it is argued that policies aimed at enhancing the skill endowment of rural women can substantially reduce both the non-farm sector gender wage gap and the inequality in access to non-farm employment.

Moonlighting agricultural practices of Ugandan rural teachers and teacher retention

This paper explores a little understood aspect of education labour markets, the tendency for teachers to simultaneously engage in both white-collar side-hustle and blue-collar or land-based entrepreneurial activities. The papers argues that teacher’s engagement in multiple activities such as moonlighting and agriculture in rural community enhances their income and this helps to compensate for wage differentials with their urban counterparts. This practice is also associated with teacher retention and community integration of teachers which is a common challenge relating to rural school staffing. We suggest that the phenomenon of non-education related teacher side-hustles, which are typically understood to be problematic, is a more complex issue and a practice which may have potential benefits for hard-to-staff schools.

Gender Bias in the Hospitality Sector: Female and Male Jobs

The hospitality sector is still very traditional and male-dominated in terms of values, it is segregating and discriminatory according to gender, not only horizontally but also vertically, the wage differences between men and women are critical, and many of the jobs are stigmatized. Indeed, despite women representing most of the workforce in hospitality, such numerical dominance is not reflected in the leadership positions they occupy. Traditionally, men and women occupy different roles in the hospitality industry: women are more often assigned functions that are in line with their social roles and that represents an extension of their domestic tasks so that it is easier to find women in-room service or cleaning. Men, on the other hand, are more easily assigned physically demanding tasks, administrative and management functions, which require more skills and are therefore better paid.
 This study aims to examine the female and male social representation associated with the performance of certain roles in the hospitality sector, as perceived by tourism and hospitality students, to explore gender representations associated with different hierarchical positions and departments, and to understand some of the (in)equalities that continue to persist between men and women in hospitality.
 A quantitative cross-sectional study was performed to achieve the study goals. Our sample consists of 200 higher education students in tourism and hospitality. Based on Bem Sex Role Inventory short-form traits questionnaire, we applied an online questionnaire with the purpose of knowing the students’ gender representations of different professional activities in the hospitality industry.
 Within our results, we expect to describe the gender bias of the professional functions in the hospitality sector. On the other hand, we expect to understand possible gender differences between operational and leadership positions, and from different departments.
 The findings of this study will help the hotels to analyse their gender practices and policies. By giving voice to the stereotypes that foster gender inequalities in the hospitality sector, hotels can become aware of their gendered practices and policies that impact the recruitment process and the various roles and functions that are assigned to men and women.

IMPROVEMENT OF THE TECHNOLOGICAL PROCESS ACCOUNTING OF SALARY AT THE INDUSTRIAL ENTERPRIS

The article regarding the working conditions of an industrial enterprise describes approaches to rational differentiation of wages taking into account the following: qualifications of jobs and employees; quantitative results of labor; working conditions, which means difficult and special sanitary and hygienic conditions of work processes; the role of an employee (profession) in production, which determines the degree of his influence on the results of collective work on manufacturing of the main production. It is substantiated that increasing production volumes and increasing profit on investments requires constant improvement of wage accounting in case of changes in wage payment systems and wide use of modern computing equipment. It was concluded, that for small-scale production it is advisable to display the corresponding rate of payment together with the performance of various non-repetitive works or operations in the orders. For the brigade form of work, it is advisable to provide the necessary data for calculating earnings and their distribution among the members of the brigade on the reverse page of the order, taking into account the labor participation rate of each member of the brigade, which will contribute to the efficient operation of enterprises in conditions of intense competition. Rationalization of various allowances and payments additional to official salaries, as well as bonuses and rewards, which are systematic, in case of systematic reduction of total costs was performed. The implementation of the electronic form of sick leaves and the electronic register of sick leaves in the employer’s personal account causes the accounting staff to rationalize the “ready for payment” operation. The organization of the technological process of accounting for both sick leaves at the expense of the social insurance fund and additional vacations for liquidators of the consequences of the accident at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant is detailed. The mechanism for regulating inter-job salaries and intra-production tariffs, taking into account the qualifications of an employee, his education, the degree of responsibility for the work performed, initiative, length of service at the given enterprise, and the results of qualification certification of workers was improved. A rational report form has been developed to avoid discrepancies, numerous errors and inaccuracies in the process of accruing and transferring of preferential pensions at the expense of the funds of enterprises and organizations which are paid and delivered by employees of the Pension Fund.

Contemporary Amelioration of Educational Parlance towards Exclusion and Disparity: “Digital Village”

Education is an institution that is merely to bridge the disparity between exclusions and marginalization towards the polymers of ameliorating the digital Village. The offset and onset concept of adoption of the digital learning rather online learning in this contemporary society, which is suffering from the challenges of various social balance has divided socioeconomic groups according to certain levels of efficacy. There are initiatives by the government to compensate this disparity, but the compensation of adopted learning solutions are creating a technological gap, a progressive gap, a fundamental creation of utilization of a leveraged educational access towards the unequal distribution of quality, prevailing in the society. The costs of digitization is not merely economical, rather its social, its cultural, and it's a barrier towards the part of access to the commonality. Understanding the ground reality, education became a prerequisite of ‘digital village’, that approaches to “technological fix” for extraordinary parlance that provokes contemporary inequalities towards marginal and exclusionary dimensions of various groups and communities prevailing in the society. We can't forbid the fact of gender sustainability, which is inclusive towards socioeconomic access lagging behind the necessary increasing digitalized interconnection. accentuated with the transformation that unfolds the growth of individuals rooting out the bias of gender. In this paper, we will talk about economies that enables the use of technology to create a gender gap, to create accessing gap and benefiting the margins of digital revelation. The important wage differences between the skilled men and women characterizes the digital intensive which is a bottle of leads of the age group helping amelioration of mitigating the divide. As a caring responsibilities to upskill and retrain the rapid evolution which provokes marginalization but mitigates inequality includes the time frame required for the analytical paper to be more substantive. We are bound to the fact that we make locally circumvolant and distributive swords to the prioritized developed entitlements. Estimating the cost of downtrodden marginal equity, we can see the dropouts levels of the rural area from the education, we can see the baits to keep the girls life alive and make them literate as a strategy rather the parlance of welfare. To identify the existing violence of evidences relevant for the digital gender gap outlining the possible actions of various policy making this multi-faceted approach of articulation will definitely analyse the importance of Education, in the curriculum design and its implication with the importance of intervention to bridge the literacy gap, to average the redesigning of educational training curriculum and also the chapters in the paper will focus upon quantitative and qualitative terms to provide the issues of contemporary society relating to the biggest share of subscribers to the affordable availability of digital village.

Disentangling Occupational Sorting from Within-Occupation Disparities: Earnings Differences Among 12 Gender–Race/Ethnicity Groups in the U.S.

This paper quantifies the role that occupations play in explaining wage differences among 12 gender–race/ethnicity groups without including occupations as control variables in wage equations. Our approach, based on a counterfactual analysis that involves a re-weighting scheme, has three advantages. First, it allows enlarging the small list of occupations usually employed in the literature. Second, it directly addresses the fact that occupational sorting is not a gender- and race-blind mechanism. Third, it allows for the comparison of all the groups simultaneously after controlling for characteristics. Our analysis shows that, after controlling for characteristics other than gender and race/ethnicity, occupational segregation accounts for around 40–50% of the earnings losses of White, Hispanic, Native American, and “other race” women (relative to the economy’s average wage) and it reaches 63% in the case of Black women. Black men’s occupational sorting also harms them after controlling for attributes, a finding that we do not see in any other male group. On the contrary, around half of the earnings advantages of White and Asian men arises from their occupational sorting. Additionally, this paper develops a decomposition that allows identifying the occupations that bring losses/gains to each group beyond what is expected based on its characteristics, which is also a novelty in respect to what has been done in the literature.

<p>The Multifaceted Dimensions of the Wage Gap in Ecuador</p>

This study examines the determinants of wage gap differences based on gender, ethnicity, and area of residence (urban vs. rural) in Ecuador for the years 2007 and 2017. By combining the Oaxaca-Blinder decomposition with unconditional quantile regression, we identify the extent to which the wage gap between two groups is due to characteristics (endowment) or unexplained factors at various points of the distribution, i.e. for low-, medium- and high-income workers. Results show that, on average, the gender and ethnic wage gap in 2017 increased slightly with respect to 2007, while the area wage gaps remained stable. However, progresses have mainly benefited those at the top of the income distribution, while disparities have widened for those at the bottom. As regards endowment effects, education mainly explains area and ethnicity wage gaps, while there is an important unexplained part that contributes more to gender wage differentials.

Financial Reporting Quality and Wage Differentials: Evidence from Worker‐Level Data

ABSTRACTWe examine whether financial reporting quality affects worker wages using employer‐employee matched data in the United States. We find that low financial reporting quality is associated with a compensating wage differential—that is, a risk premium—using three distinct approaches while controlling for worker characteristics by (1) regressing wages on firm‐year–level and firm‐level reporting quality, (2) documenting wage changes when workers switch firms, and (3) estimating a structural approach that separates reporting quality from performance‐related volatility. We find evidence consistent with two channels: performance pay and turnover risk, where workers bear risks from noise in performance measurement and unemployment, respectively. To mitigate endogeneity concerns, we show that—after the accounting scandals in 2002 and after the announcements of an internal control weakness (ICW)—former Arthur Andersen clients and ICW firms pay wage premiums to employees, with magnitudes between 0.9% and 2.8% of annual wages.

Labour market hierarchies between intra-EU migrants: why do mobile workers from the EU-West obtain better jobs and wages than those from the EU-East?

ABSTRACT This article examines hierarchies of recent intra-EU migrants from EU-West (EU15) and EU-East (New Member States 13) countries in Western European labour markets. We use data from the European Labour Force Survey 2014 special module on migrants and their descendants to analyse how different skill levels, reasons for migration and, concurrently, different job-search strategies shape hierarchies in labour market outcomes as captured by wages and occupational status. Our analyses reveal that recent EU-West migrants have jobs with higher wages and higher occupational status than recent EU-East migrants. The former are more likely to be highly skilled and more often had already found employment before migrating through job ads or direct employer contacts. EU-East migrants, by contrast, are more often medium skilled and found employment after migrating by using social networks. Different skill levels, migration motives and job-finding methods account for differences in wages and occupational status between the two groups. However, even when all of these factors – as well as individual and labour market factors – are controlled for in the regression analyses, labour market hierarchies remain significant, indirectly indicating discrimination. Overall, our results show that free labour mobility creates new hierarchies between mobile EU-West and EU-East workers in Western Europe.

Transformation of the principles of remuneration of workers and employees in the Soviet metallurgy during 1922 – 1928 period (based on collective agreements and tariff agreements of the Sickle and Hammer plant)

Solving the tasks of restoring Soviet industry during the NEP years was accompanied by the formation of a new system of labor relations and the search for effective forms of labor stimulation, among which wages were the main one. The main objective of the study was to identify and characterize the key principles of remuneration of workers and employees of the metallurgical industry, their changes and impact on wage differentiation in 1922-1928. On the basis of collective agreements and tariff agreements of the Sickle and Hammer plant, which in the period under review was experimental, new forms of remuneration were worked out. As a result, it was this company that had to demonstrate the effectiveness of the state's salary policy. Collective agreements during the NEP years reflected most aspects of labor activity. The duration of collective agreements gradually increased, they began to regulate a greater number of controversial issues in the field of remuneration. Due to high inflation, the terms and forms of salary payments were standardized. During the NEP period, there was an increase in wage differentiation at the Sickle and Hammer plant, both between different groups of workers and within them. However, this trend was partially offset by the actions of trade unions and the government aimed at equalizing earnings. Wages declined in the period 1923-1928, as workers faced tougher and more systematic requirements for defective products and their payment, with an increase in the production plan. Trends in time-based payment are determined mainly by the difference between tariff rates and minimum wages, which grew during the NEP period for all categories of workers. Bonus payments characterized the highest—paid group of factory workers - high-level employees. Their earnings were formed with the help of bonuses, earnings and the tariff rate, which made it consistently high.

SELF-MANAGED WORK TEAMS: AN EFFICIENCY-RATIONALE FOR PAY COMPRESSION

This article delves into the concept of self-managed work teams and investigates the efficiency-rationale for implementing pay compression within such teams. By examining existing research and theoretical frameworks, this study aims to shed light on the relationship between self-managed work teams, pay compression, and organizational efficiency. The findings highlight the potential benefits of pay compression in promoting teamwork, collaboration, and overall productivity within self-managed work teams. Self-managed work teams have gained attention as a means to enhance employee empowerment and organizational performance. In these teams, employees are responsible for decision-making, task allocation, and problem-solving, resulting in greater autonomy and collaboration. This article explores the efficiency-rationale for implementing pay compression within self-managed work teams. Pay compression, the reduction of wage differentials within teams, is proposed as a strategy to align compensation with the team-based approach and promote team cohesion. Drawing on existing literature and theoretical frameworks, this study examines the potential benefits of pay compression in improving team performance, cooperation, and overall organizational efficiency. The findings contribute to the understanding of how pay compression can be utilized as an effective tool to optimize team dynamics and drive productivity in self-managed work environments.

Occupational Feminization and Pay: The Case of Brazil

The sex wage gap is widely documented in the literature. Although several theories emerged to explain it, the devaluation and queuing views have been dominant due to women’s concentration in lower-paying occupations. They differ in the direction of thecausal effect: while the devaluation theory predicts lower wages for higher occupation’s female share, the queuing theory predicts causal effect in the opposite direction. No studies to support these theories have been found for developing countries and this paper aims to test them for Brazil. Using Censuses data, three results emerge: 1) negative correlation between sex composition and wages; 2) no evidence to support neither theory; 3) some evidence to support another view: the theory of equalizing differences. This last theory predicts no causal relationship between the occupational share of females and wages because wage differentials would emerge from human capital differences and the value attributed to jobs’ non-monetary advantages.

Skill-Biased Technological Change and Gender Inequality across OECD Countries—A Simultaneous Approach

Of the various approaches that, over the last few decades, have sought explanations for the constant increase in the wage gap between more and less skilled workers, the Skill-Biased Technological Change (SBTC) approach has been the most used and the one that has led to the most consistent results. The objective of this study is to assess whether the possible mobility between different types of workers, considering their experience and professional training, and this way, replacing more skilled workers in terms of education widens or reduces the wage gap between qualifications. For this purpose, we resorted to the modeling of simultaneous equations taking into account the OECD countries between 2007 and 2020, concluding that there is a strong influence of the wage gaps of the less qualified in the widening of the gaps of the more qualified and that this influence is more significant in the case of women. Education continues to promote the increase in wage differences in favor of the most qualified, as well as the SBTC approach. We also conclude that women’s wage gaps are approaching the average of most workers, thus reducing wage inequality between genders.

Do Chinese firms in Africa pay lower wages? A comparative analysis of manufacturing and construction firms in Angola and Ethiopia

This paper analyses wage differences between Chinese and non-Chinese firms in Angola and Ethiopia. The growing engagement of Chinese firms in sub-Saharan Africa has generated debates about the working conditions offered to African workers. However, the evidence for many of the claims made about wages in Chinese firms operating in sub-Saharan Africa is unconvincing. In this paper the authors identify problems with the existing literature and provide new comparative evidence on wages in Chinese, other foreign and domestic firms in Angola and Ethiopia. Drawing on over 1,400 worker-level interviews the authors find that Chinese firms do not consistently pay less than comparable firms. Using a multi-scalar labour regime framework the authors show that a combination individual worker characteristics, sector specificities, and firm attributes are necessary to explain variations in wages in both countries. The national origin of firms by itself cannot explain the observed differences in wages.

Differentiation of wages in the Ural industry: on the way to the “Great Turning Point”

Regulating wages in the state industry was an important socio-economic task during the NEP years. The general direction of this regulation can be characterized by an leveling trend, which was initiated and supported by trade unions. At the same time, enterprises sought to achieve a certain differentiation of employee's wages in order to maintain the required level of labor incentives. The implementation of this policy in the Urals had some peculiarities. Thus, the wages of Ural workers were on average noticeably lower than in the industrialized areas of the center of the country. The article provides examples of protests by various layers of workers in the Urals regarding the course towards “leveling”. The characteristics of the tariff reform of 1928 are given. The article sets the task of assessing changes in the level of differentiation of wages for industrial workers in the Urals during the years of the “late NEP”. The measurement of differentiation and wage inequality is carried out in the article using the decile coefficient and the Gini index. The article shows that carried out in the 1920s the policy of equalizing workers' wages was not only proclaimed in governing documents, but was also implemented, in this case, in the Ural industry. Measurements carried out using various methods confirm a decrease in the degree of differentiation of wages for workers in the Urals at the final stage of the NEP. At the same time, the gap in wages between blue-collar workers and industrial employees was significant and showed a tendency to further increase. However, after a couple of years, the policy of leveling wages was decisively condemned. The authorities claimed exiting tariff scales represented the “cultivation of petty-bourgeois egalitarianism” and hampered the stimulation of raising the qualifications of workers.

Migration and wage inequality: a detailed analysis for German metropolitan and non-metropolitan regions

This study presents new evidence on immigrant-native wage gaps considering regional-specific differences between 2000 and 2019 in Germany. Using linked employer-employee-data, unconditional quantile regression models are estimated in order to assess the degree of labor market integration of foreign workers. The applied extended version of the Oaxaca-Blinder decomposition method provides evidence on driving factors behind wage gaps along the entire wage distribution. Estimated results are presented not only for the whole of West Germany but also differentiated between metropolitan and non-metropolitan areas. On average, larger wage differentials are identified in metropolitan areas with at the same time a higher presence of foreign population. Detailed decompositions show that there are not only changes in the relative importance of explanatory factors over time, but also possible sources of wage differentials shift between different points of the wage distribution. Decisive explanatory variables in this context are the practised profession and the economic sector affiliation. Distinguishing between metropolitan and non-metropolitan areas, provides evidence that especially differences in educational attainment impact wage gaps in urban areas. Regarding the size of overall estimated wage gaps, after 2012 a reversal in trend and particular increasing tendencies around median wages are revealed.

Migration and growth :

This paper examines the role of the Indian informal sector in the process of urbanisation and checks whether models of migration curated by economists are applicable in explaining their role in reducing the dualism that hinders development. The study has been limited to the Indian urban sector (non-agriculture) and the analysis is based on several data sources. Calculated wage differences in the workforce show a persistent urban-rural wage gap over a span of time; the wage gap between regular/ salaried employees and casual labour present at any point of time captures the informalisation of the urban economy. Labour segregation based on skill set and the bifurcation of migrants based on duration of stay are two factors missed by models of migration. The results reveal a substantial contribution by the informal sector in the urbanisation process, in which low-income unskilled rural migrants execute a noteworthy role. In addition, these results share the failure of models of migration to explain the continuation of the informal economy in India.

Employment Participation and Determinants of the Gender Wage Gap in the Head of the Household

The distortion model becomes a problem in development planning, including in the development goals of reducing discrimination and concerns. These two things are closely related to gender expectations on work participation. The purpose of this study was to estimate the gender pay gap at the work participation rate of household heads in Magelang during the Covid-19 pandemic. The analytical tools used are Probit regression and the decomposition of the Blinder-Oaxaca model. The model decomposes wage differentials by gender. The study uses the 2020 SAKERNAS data. The results show that work participation for male household heads is determined by the marginal effect of work experience, age and area of residence, not education level and number of family dependents, while female household heads are only determined because of the number factor. family responsibilities. Furthermore, the potential work experience of male household heads has a significant negative effect. Research findings from the Blinder-Oaxaca Decomposition calculation show that the difference in wages between groups of household heads during the Covid 19 pandemic proved statistically significant. The role of the government is expected to be more active in disseminating policies related to gender in the labor market and exercising control over business actors in implementing labor regulations.

Gig Economy During Pandemic in East Java

The COVID-19 pandemic that hit Indonesia has harmed health, socially and economically. However, the pandemic has also indirectly become a catalyst for innovation, including in the employment sector including the Gig Economy. This study aims to describe the gig phenomenon in East Java, both in the form of gig workers and the gig economy during the new normal. Using data from the August 2021 National Labor Force Survey, this study then builds a model using binary logistic regression to determine the impact of the pandemic on workers' income or wages and working hours so that it is expected to be an analysis for the government to plan policies in the new normal. This study also builds a probability model using bayesian network analysis to determine the probability that gig workers will fall into the survival or by choice category. With the simulation image through the Bayesian model, the authorities can map out policies based on the variables used in the model. This research is empirical evidence that the gig economy is growing in East Java but raises problems related to gender discrimination and indications of wage differences between gig workers in the service sector and industry. The regression model that was built resulted in the conclusion that the working hours and wages of gig workers tend to be affected by the Pandemic. The handling can be started from the results of the Bayesian analysis, namely starting with female workers in urban areas because they have an excellent opportunity to be in the survival group of gig workers.

Automation vulnerability, voting, and self-employment

We ask whether the prevalence of self-employment is higher among individuals voting right and facing automation vulnerability? Under growing automation vulnerability, those with right-leaning political orientations may be influenced by their stronger beliefs towards free markets, individualism, autonomy, and self-reliance, and may therefore, be more likely to prevail in self-employment. Counter to our expectation, we find those vulnerable to automation and voting mainstream left were less likely to be self-employed. Automation vulnerability was associated with no systematic differences in wage or self-employment prevalence among those voting mainstream right, radical-right or radical left. The findings have implications for research on political values influencing the prevalence of self-employment under growing automation vulnerability.