Differential Scale Research Articles

An Exploratory Study to Test the Psychometric Properties of Character Strengths-Semantic Differential Scale (CS-SDS) Among Singaporean Adults

Character strengths encompass a set of positive traits that can be manifested through thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. To measure the 24 character strengths, the Character Strengths-Semantic Differential Scale (CS-SDS) was used. The aim of the study was to (a) test the factor structure of CS-CDS and (b) test the convergent validity of CS-CDS with life satisfaction and positive affect, and the divergent validity of CS-SDS with negative affect. In total, 283 Singaporean students (96 males, 35.3%), with a median age of 24–26 years old (42.9%), participated in this study. Exploratory (EFA) and confirmatory factor analyses (CFA) showed the multi-dimensional nature of CS-SDS. Specifically, EFA demonstrated a four-factor model, while CFA identified a five-factor model, showing the dimensions of interpersonal, emotional, restraint, theological, and intellectual. All factors were significantly related to life satisfaction, positive affect, and negative affect. It was concluded that CS-SDS is a psychometrically sound instrument for measuring character strengths in the Asian context. This tool can be used for designing strength-based interventions aimed at promoting well-being and character among students in higher education.

Spatiotemporal Variations and Driving Factors of Ecological Sensitivity in the West Qinling Mountains, China, Under the Optimal Scale

This study selected the five indicators of soil erosion, climate environment, geological hazards, biodiversity, and human disturbances and uses the entropy weight method to calculate the ecological sensitivity of the West Qinling Mountains from 2000 to 2020. The analysis produced a spatiotemporal distribution of ecological sensitivity over the 20-year period. An equal step size of 500 m was used to progressively increase the spatial scale from 500 m to 6 km. The optimal scale for the spatial differentiation of ecological sensitivity in the West Qinling Mountains was determined by analyzing the characteristics of changes at different scales, response mechanisms, and optimal parameters for geographical detector spatial scale identification. Based on this scale, the change in intensity and pattern and the influencing factors of ecological sensitivity were analyzed. The results show the following: (1) The 5.5 km spatial scale balances the requirements of accuracy, spatial heterogeneity, and data adequacy, making it the optimal scale for analyzing the spatiotemporal variation patterns of ecological sensitivity in the West Qinling Mountains. (2) From 2000 to 2020, the mean ecological sensitivity in the West Qinling Mountains exhibited a decreasing trend, indicating an improvement in the ecological environment. Spatially, the ecological sensitivity of the West Qinling Mountains showed a spatial distribution pattern of “low in the west and high in the east, low in the south and high in the north”. During the study period, the ecological sensitivity in the West Qinling region remained generally stable, with no high-frequency changes observed. (3) Population density is the primary driving factor of spatial differentiation of ecological sensitivity in the West Qinling Mountains, while GDP serves as a secondary factor. Overall, socioeconomic factors have the most significant impact on ecological sensitivity. (4) Over 75% of the ecological sensitivity trends exhibit patterns of perennial unchanged and fluctuating unchanged trends, with areas of fluctuating increase smaller than areas of fluctuating decrease. Regions of perennial high sensitivity are primarily concentrated in the northeastern part of the West Qinling Mountains, while areas with increased fluctuation in ecological sensitivity are mainly located in the western and southern parts of the West Qinling Mountains. Future efforts should focus on these regions.

Linguistic correlates of second language users’ attitudes to Arabic and Chinese varieties of English: a verbal guise study

ABSTRACT Research into language attitudes suggests that L2 users often hold negative attitudes toward their own and others’ L2 accents. However, less is known about specific features that affect these attitudes. Beinhoff’s study explored consonantal variation and its impact on perceptions of L2 speakers, but this study further examines linguistic correlates of L2 users’ attitudes toward Arabic and Chinese varieties of English. Using the verbal guise method, Arabic and Chinese male and female speakers read a paragraph in English with varying L1 influences. Each sample was rated by 30 L2 listeners on a 6-point semantic differential scale assessing status, solidarity, and dynamism. Phonological and fluency analyses of the samples revealed that non-segmental features, such as prosody, play a more significant role in eliciting positive attitudes toward these English varieties than do segmental features. These findings highlight the importance of suprasegmental aspects in shaping listener perceptions of L2 English speech.

Unpacking Beliefs and Representations Surrounding Adoptive Families in Italy

Being an adoptive family member could be challenging, especially if the social context conveys unrealistic representations. In Italy, few studies explored socially shared beliefs about adoptive families. We investigated how adoptive parents and adopted children are perceived within the Italian context and whether attitudes toward adoptive and biological parenthood are different. 630 participants who were not part of adoptive families completed an ad hoc questionnaire exploring adoption-related beliefs, the Semantic Differential Scale, and the Couples Ratings Scale after reading vignettes about biological and adoptive parenthood. Our results showed positive views of adoptive parents, high concerns about the social support for adoptive families, and high worries about physical and sexual abuse for biological families. These results are an important first step toward understanding adoption-related socially shared representations in Italy, with the final aim of preventing negative behaviors toward adoptive families.

Multi-Sensory Interaction and Spatial Perception in Urban Microgreen Spaces: A Focus on Vision, Auditory, and Olfaction

As important recreational spaces for urban residents, urban microgreen parks enhance the urban living environment and alleviate psychological pressure on residents. The visual, auditory, and olfactory senses are crucial forms of perception in human interaction with nature, and the sustainable perceptual design of miniature green parks under their interaction has become a recent research hotspot. This study aimed to investigate the effects of the visual, acoustic, and olfactory environments (e.g., aromatic green vegetation) on human perception in miniature green parks. Participants were evenly divided into eight groups, including single-sensory groups, multi-sensory interaction groups, and a control group. Eye-tracking technology, blood pressure monitoring, and the Semantic Differential (SD) scales and Profile of Mood State (POMS) were used to assess the effectiveness of physical and mental perception recovery in each group. The results revealed that in an urban microgreen space environment with relatively low ambient noise, visual–auditory, visual–olfactory, and visual–auditory–olfactory interactive stimuli were more effective in promoting the recovery of visual attention than single visual stimuli. Additionally, visual–auditory–olfactory interactive stimuli were able to optimize the quality of spatial perception by using positive sensory inputs to effectively mask negative experiences. Simultaneously, environments with a high proportion of natural sounds had the strongest stimuli, and in the visual–auditory group, systolic blood pressure at S7 and heart rate at S9 significantly decreased (p < 0.05), with reductions of 18.60 mmHg and 20.15 BPM, respectively. Aromatic olfactory sources were more effective in promoting physical and mental relaxation compared to other olfactory sources, with systolic blood pressure reductions of 24.40 mmHg (p < 0.01) for marigolds, 23.35 mmHg (p < 0.01) for small-leaved boxwood, and 27.25 mmHg (p < 0.05) for camphor trees. Specific auditory and olfactory conditions could guide visual focus, such as birdsong directing attention to trees, insect sounds drawing attention to herbaceous plants, floral scents attracting focus to flowers, and leaf scents prompting observation of a wider range of natural vegetation. In summary, significant differences exist between single-sensory experiences and multi-sensory modes of spatial perception and interaction in urban microgreen parks. Compared to a silent and odorless environment, the integration of acoustic and olfactory elements broadened the scope of visual attention, and In the visual–auditory–olfactory interactive perception, the combination of natural sounds and aromatic camphor tree scents had the best effect on attention recovery, thereby improving the quality of spatial perception in urban microgreen parks.

Landscape visual evaluation and place attachment in historical and cultural districts: a study based on semantic differential scale and eye tracking experimental methods

Landscape visual evaluation and place attachment in historical and cultural districts: a study based on semantic differential scale and eye tracking experimental methods

Development of Chinese college students’ perception teacher differential behavior scale and its reliability and validity test

ObjectiveTo compile a scale of Chinese college students’ perception of teachers’ differential behavior and to provide a reference for college students to establish correct life values, promote college students’ physical and mental health, and reduce teachers’ differential treatment.MethodsOpen-ended questionnaires and expert interviews were used to conduct interviews and correspondence with 58 college students, ten psychologists, and six psychologists to form an initial questionnaire. Then, the scale’s exploratory factor analysis, confirmatory factor analysis, and reliability and validity test were conducted on 7053 college students from 18 universities in 6 provinces (municipalities directly under the Central Government).ResultsThe Chinese college students’ perception of teachers’ differential behavior scale has two dimensions: teacher prejudice and preference. Each dimension includes three aspects: emotional feedback, behavior orientation, and opportunity privilege, and each aspect have a total of 4 items. The consistency test coefficients of each dimension and each factor of the prepared scale are all above 0.7, and the split-half reliability is above 0.6. Confirmatory factor analysis shows that the six-factor structural model fits well (χ2/df = 4.287, RMSEA = 0.066, CFI = 0.950, TLI = 0.919). Using the generalized anxiety disorder scale and the patient health questionaire-9items as empirical criteria, each factor in the scale demonstrated significant correlations with both the GAD scale and the patient health questionaire-9items.ConclusionsThe Chinese college students’ perception of teachers’ differential behavior scale has a two-dimensional six-factor structure and has good reliability and validity. It can be used as an effective tool to measure Chinese college students’ perceived teacher differential behavior.

Evaluation of early treatment with intravenous idursulfase and intrathecal idursulfase-IT on cognitive function in siblings with neuronopathic mucopolysaccharidosis II.

Mucopolysaccharidosis II (MPS II; Hunter syndrome; OMIM 309900) is a rare, X-linked, heterogeneous lysosomal storage disease. Approximately two-thirds of patients develop cognitive impairment, which is difficult to assess in clinical trials, partly owing to the variable nature of cognitive impairment. Analyzing data from siblings can help to minimize this heterogeneity. We report analyses of cognitive function from siblings with MPS II enrolled in clinical trials: a natural history study (NCT01822184), a randomized, open-label, phase 2/3 study of intravenous (IV) idursulfase with or without intrathecal idursulfase (idursulfase-IT; NCT02055118), and its extension (NCT2412787). Cognitive function was assessed using Differential Abilities Scales, Second Edition General Conceptual Ability (DAS-II GCA) scores; Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development, Third Edition; and Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales, Second Edition Adaptive Behavior Composite (VABS-II ABC). Seven sets of siblings (six pairs and one set of three) were included. All patients received IV idursulfase and 10 received subsequent idursulfase-IT. Younger siblings initiated IV idursulfase at an earlier age than their older sibling(s) in six of the sets; the younger sibling started treatment before 1 year of age in three sets. Monthly idursulfase-IT was generally associated with a stabilization of cognitive function: DAS-II GCA and VABS-II ABC scores were higher at age-matched assessments in the majority of those who either received idursulfase-IT earlier than their sibling or who received idursulfase-IT versus no idursulfase-IT. These data suggest that early initiation of intrathecal enzyme replacement therapy may stabilize or slow cognitive decline in some patients with neuronopathic MPS II.

Pengaruh Sosial, Materialisme, dan Impulse Buying terhadap Niat Membeli

This research investigates how social influence, materialism, impulse buying, and purchase intentions relate to each other. This research data collection method uses the Google Forms platform. Herbalife customers in the Gianyar district receive questionnaires directly through QR codes and links. This study uses the semantic differential scale 1 (Very Disagree) – 10 (Absolutely agree). Besides, attitudes can also be measured on this scale; however, rather than double options or checklists, the shape is a continuum line. Furthermore, the structural equation model (SEM) is used with the SmartPLS (Partial Least Square) 4 version for data analysis. The results of the research hypothesis sample test showed that based on 105 responses social influence does not affect purchase intention. Materialism and impulsive buying affect purchase intention. Social influence and materialism affect impulsive buying.

Revealing the use of dental indices to infer taxonomic variation in sauropod dinosaurs

AbstractSauropod teeth are commonly categorized taxonomically by two well‐established measurement indices: slenderness index (SI; apicobasal height/mesiodistal width), which quantifies breadth, and compression index (CI; labiolingual width/mesiodistal width), which quantifies cross‐sectional circularity. Although both indices are used to infer high‐level taxonomic affinities, little is known about the linear relationships between the constituent measurements or how the indices vary intra‐cranially and at lower taxonomic levels. Here, we evaluate these relationships using a novel dataset of sauropod teeth (N = 898) spanning all major sauropod groups. Results for both indices indicate significant differential scaling within Sauropodomorpha, both in slope and elevation. Broad‐crowned sauropods mostly display positive allometry in SI compared to isometry in narrow‐crowned sauropods. However, this distinction is less clear with CI as most sauropods display isometry, whilst non‐sauropod sauropodomorphs (e.g. Plateosauridae) display positive allometry. An anova reveals SI varies significantly with genus and tooth position. Specifically, jaw type (maxilla and dentary) is significant within Plateosauridae, whilst tooth position is significant within titanosaurs. Overall, variation within CI is restricted to genus. Our findings reveal that whilst indices have taxonomic utility, there are caveats. The measurements used to calculate the indices exhibit significant allometry, indicating that index values are size‐dependent. Furthermore, the indices may not accurately reflect size heterodont conditions present among early‐branching sauropodomorphs. Our study highlights the importance of quantifying taxonomic relationships of measurement data, which can be used to inform hypotheses regarding the physiological and palaeoecological drivers influencing tooth shape evolution.

Family or career? Intergenerational differences in values

Structurally disadvantaged regions are looking for ways to attract and retain educated people who are the pillars in community for economic, social, and cultural prosperity. This research is aimed at gaining insight into the values and preferences of such people in order to better understand their decision-making. The study sample (n = 1350) was formed using quota-wide sampling (university-educated people). The data was collected by a specialized research agency using an electronic survey. The values and preferences were first determined using a semantic differential scale, and then the significance was verified by a Kruskal Wallis test followed by a post hoc test. Based on the statistical analysis, it was found for all generations that the ideal place to live is a quiet village or smaller town with good civic amenities, transport accessibility, and proximity to nature. This offers an opportunity for several villages that saw a large loss of population in the past when inhabitants left for big cities at the end of the last century. Another common value across generations is the preference for family over single life. However, Generation Z differs from Generation X and Y in their preference for career over family and even their preference for career over leisure time, which is not entirely consistent with Inglehart's theory on the preference for post-materialist values.

Analyzing the Spatiotemporal Pattern and Interaction of SDGs for Sustainable Development in Inner Mongolia

Increased global climate change and contradictions in human–land relationships has aroused awareness of studies on regional sustainable development. Whether SDGs and their interactions are suitable for analyzing the fine scale of regional differentiation of sustainable development, especially in ecologically sensitive regions, was still in suspense. This study analyzed the inter-annual changes and regional clustering of SDGs and the interactions among SDGs, and among their indicators, at both provincial and municipal levels in Inner Mongolia. We found the sustainable development was relatively higher in the east than in the west. SDG5, SDG6, SDG10, SDG11, and SDG15 got cold spots in the west and hot spots in the east. For most SDGs and indicators, synergies outweigh trade-offs. Improvement measures should focus on the indices with strong synergies such as SDG3 and SDG7, and SOC2, ECO1, ECO4, and ECO5. Special attention should be put on those with trade-offs such as ECO15 and ENV20 to be aware of their opposite effects. SDG5 and ECO2 were the most important in the entire network that need attention. Considering only singular or a few SDGs may not be feasible when assessing sustainable development because other goals or indicators may play roles. Reasonable improvements for sustainable development needed to clarify synergies and trade-offs among SDGs and indicators.

Evaluating the impact of nonverbal behavior on language ability ratings

Nonverbal behavior can impact language proficiency scores in speaking tests, but there is little empirical information of the size or consistency of its effects or whether language proficiency may be a moderating variable. In this study, 100 novice raters watched and scored 30 recordings of test takers taking an international, high stakes proficiency test. The speech samples were each 2 minutes long and ranged in proficiency levels. The raters scored each sample on fluency, vocabulary, grammar, and comprehensibility using 7-point semantic differential scales. Nonverbal behavior was extracted using an automated machine learning software called iMotions, and data was analyzed with ordinal mixed effects regression. Results showed that attentional variance predicted fluency, vocabulary, and grammar scores, but only when accounting for proficiency. Higher standard deviations of attention corresponded with lower scores for the lower-proficiency group, but not the mid/higher-proficiency group. Comprehensibility scores were only predicted by mean valence when proficiency was an interaction term. Higher mean valence, or positive emotional behavior, corresponded with higher scores in the lower-proficiency group, but not the mid/higher-proficiency group. Effect sizes for these predictors were quite small, with small amounts of variance explained. These results have implications for construct representation and test fairness.

Ascertaining the Peculiarities of Athletes’ Adaptation Course to Post-Sports Life

Objectives. The purpose of the study was to identify the peculiarities of athletes’ adaptation to post-sport life under modern conditions of reality. Materials and methods. The study involved 36 athletes, Masters of Sports, aged 25 to 40 years, who had finished their professional sports careers in disciplines such as ballroom dancing, artistic gymnastics, football, swimming, and judo. The study used methods of analysis and generalization obtained from scientific-methodical literature and internet data, surveys, and psychodiagnostics: the “Differential Emotions Scale” by C. Izard, adapted by A. Leonova, the “Meaningful Life Orientations” method by D. A. Leontiev, an adapted version of the “Purpose-in-Life Test” (PIL) by James Crumbaugh and Leonard Maholick, as well as the “Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory” (ZTPI) by Zimbardo, P. G., & Boyd, J. N. During the study results’ analysis, the following methods were used: frequency analysis — identification of the frequency of each emotion category (absolute frequencies), and a calculation of percentage values (relative frequencies) for each category relative to the total number of participants. This was also applied to determine the number of athletes belonging to each category of future plans and to define the components of the time perspective; descriptive statistics — calculation of the mean value for each survey scale; these values were used to compare mean values between different scales and to analyze the variability of responses by calculating the standard deviation; percentage calculation. Results. This study examined the post-sport adaptation of 36 athletes using psychodiagnostic methods, thereby uncovering a complex emotional landscape and a variety of future perspectives. The survey results showed that 43% of the respondents had not yet decided what they wanted to become in their post-sports life, indicating significant stress, negative emotions, and physical and psychological problems that require attention and support. A significant portion (40%) of respondents affirmed that they could envisage their future without sports, with 25% choosing to become coaches and 15% interested in sports-related professions. Only 17% of respondents considered their future in other fields. The study also found that 42% of athletes reported having a strongly negative attitude towards leaving professional sports, experiencing feelings such as despair, grief, anger, disgust, and confusion. Another 36% of athletes characterized their emotional state as anxious-depressive, which also requires attention. Meanwhile, 22% of respondents stated a positive emotional attitude towards ending their careers, demonstrating interest in new circumstances and their future, which helps them to transition effectively into new lives. The study results on life orientations revealed that athletes tended to be more focused on past achievements and current goals than on the future, which may complicate their adaptation to post-sports life. Nevertheless, 37% of athletes are oriented towards a positive future and are willing to make efforts to achieve the necessary goals. Therefore, the findings clearly indicate the need for post-sports support and increased attention to the large proportion of former athletes (79%), whose mental health depends on the timeliness and speed of measures taken by specialists. Conclusions. The transition process for athletes after ending their professional careers to a life without sports is defined as individually nuanced, complex, and prolonged; it depends on past career success, is accompanied by stressful situations and negative emotions, and often requires a sudden conclusion to preserve the sense of being a champion.

HIV-related cognitive disorders in children in Kinshasa (Democratic Republic of Congo)

ObjectivesHIV-infected individuals are at increased risk of neurocognitive disorders compared with the general population. Studies suggest that, despite the combination of antiretroviral drugs, HIV infection causes immune activation leading to significant neural damage; however, there is little data on HIV-infected young people in our country.MethodologyThis is a comparative cross-sectional study conducted between November 2020 and March 2021 on two hundred and sixteen children aged 6–15 years, including 106 HIV-positive children and 108 healthy children. Cognitive performance was assessed using the Differential Ability Scale Second Edition (DAS-II).ResultsHIV-infected children showed lower cognitive scores than control children in the subtest group of verbal ability (82.1% vs. 43.5%); non-verbal ability (84.9% vs. 45.4%); spatial ability (79.2% vs. 21.3%) and generall conceptual ability (GCA) (88.7% vs. 43.5%). The children in the control group had significantly higher ability scores in the diagnostic tests and in school achievement, and the difference was statistically significant.ConclusionCognitive impairment remains a significant complication in HIV-positive children, as suggested by low cognitive scores in more than half of our participants. This is an unresolved issue with implications for survival, quality of life and daily functioning in these children. It is important that clinicians are able to identify and manage these cognitive deficits.

A Chatbot-Based Version of the World Health Organization-Validated Self-Help Plus Intervention for Stress Management: Co-Design and Usability Testing.

Advancements in technology offer new opportunities to support vulnerable populations, such as pregnant women and women diagnosed with breast cancer, during physiologically and psychologically stressful periods. This study aims to adapt and co-design the World Health Organization's Self-Help Plus intervention into a mobile health intervention for these target groups. On the basis of the Obesity-Related Behavioral Intervention Trials and Center for eHealth Research and Disease Management models, low-fidelity and high-fidelity prototypes were developed. Prototypes were evaluated by 13 domain experts from diverse sectors and 15 participants from the target groups to assess usability, attractiveness, and functionality through semantic differential scales, the User Version of the Mobile Application Rating Scale questionnaire, and semistructured interviews. Feedback from participants indicated positive perceptions of the mobile health intervention, highlighting its ease of use, appropriate language, and attractive multimedia content. Areas identified for improvement included enhancing user engagement through reminders, monitoring features, and increased personalization. The quality of the content and adherence to initial protocols were positively evaluated. This research provides valuable insights for future studies aiming to enhance the usability, efficacy, and effectiveness of the app, suggesting the potential role of a chatbot-delivered Self-Help Plus intervention as a supportive tool for pregnant women and women with a breast cancer diagnosis.

Attitude of Community Members towards the Capacity of the Village Land Councils in managing land use conflicts between farmers and pastoralists in Tanzania: A cross sectional Case study Analysis.

Village Land Councils have been established to resolve land use conflicts in rural Tanzania. The history reveals that Tanzania has been mostly affected with the endless land based conflicts between farmers and pastoralists.The presence of VLCs in rural Tanzania has brought significant changes in rural areas where farmers and pastoralists compete to utilize and possess scarce resources. However, rural dwellers have different opinions on the worthness of the respective local organs in resolving land use conflicts between farmers and pastoralists. This study therefore intended to explore attitudes from the community members towards the capacity of the Village Land Councils in managing land use conflicts between farmers and pastoralists. Sem-structured interviews were used to collect data where semantic differential scale was used as the appropriate tool for exploring attitudes from the respondents particularly: farmers and pastoralists who mostly rely on VLCs for mediation services. NVivo software was used for analyzing such data. The results indicated that majority of respondents (farmers and pastoralists) in Mbarali and Kilosa District Councils had positive attitude towards VLCs due to their performance in resolving land use conflicts between farmers and pastoralists. Similar response was obtained from the farmers operating in Tunduru District Council. However, some pastoralists in Tunduru District Councils had remained skeptical on the capacity of the VLCs to resolve conflicts and create conducive working environment for both conflicting parties. Their doubts relied on injustice practices such as corruption, nepotism and tribalism that were directly associated with VLC members. Based on the findings, the study suggests for more capacity building programs for enhancing the capacity of VLC members to act firmly and objectively and for the community members so that they develop a sense of responsibilities in supporting the VLCs’ operations for the common good.

Stability and change in maternal wellbeing and illbeing from pregnancy to three years postpartum

PurposeMotherhood affects women’s mental health, encompassing aspects of both wellbeing and illbeing. This study investigated stability and change in wellbeing (i.e., relationship satisfaction and positive affect) and illbeing (i.e., depressive and anxiety symptoms) from pregnancy to three years postpartum. We further investigated the mutual and dynamic relations between these constructs over time and the role of genetic propensities in their time-invariant stability.Data and methodsThis four-wave longitudinal study included 83,124 women from the Norwegian Mother, Father, and Child Cohort Study (MoBa) linked to the Medical Birth Registry of Norway. Data were collected during pregnancy (30 weeks) and at 6, 18 and 36 months postpartum. Wellbeing and illbeing were based on the Relationship Satisfaction Scale, the Differential Emotions Scale and Hopkins Symptoms Checklist-8. Genetics were measured by the wellbeing spectrum polygenic index. Analyses were based on random intercept cross-lagged panel models using R.ResultsAll four outcomes showed high stability and were mutually interconnected over time, with abundant cross-lagged predictions. The period of greatest instability was from pregnancy to 6 months postpartum, followed by increasing stability. Prenatal relationship satisfaction played a crucial role in maternal mental health postpartum. Women’s genetic propensity to wellbeing contributed to time-invariant stability of all four constructs.ConclusionUnderstanding the mutual relationship between different aspects of wellbeing and illbeing allows for identifying potential targets for health promotion interventions. Time-invariant stability was partially explained by genetics. Maternal wellbeing and illbeing develop in an interdependent way from pregnancy to 36 months postpartum.

Assessment of Income Differentiation of Different-Sized Households in Poland

The household is the basic economic unit that participates in both economic and social life. It must generate income, the level of which may change over time and vary depending on the size of the household. The aim of the research was to assess the scale of differentiation of household income in Poland in the years 2014-2021 due to their size. The study used the comparative analysis method. Secondary data on disposable income per person in the household was compared. The variation in income in particular years was examined using the classic coefficient of variation. In the years under study, in each type of household (taking into account its size), disposable income increased, with a higher growth rate recorded by larger households. In all years, the size of the farm significantly differentiated the level of disposable income of households, and this differentiation showed a decreasing trend.

Color representations of normals and congenital red–green color deficiencies based on differential scaling of color‐names and color‐naming experiments

Color representations of normals and congenital red–green color deficiencies based on differential scaling of color‐names and color‐naming experiments