Different Types Of Polysaccharides Research Articles

A review of the current state of natural biomaterials in wound healing applications.

Skin, the largest biological organ, consists of three main parts: the epidermis, dermis, and subcutaneous tissue. Wounds are abnormal wounds in various forms, such as lacerations, burns, chronic wounds, diabetic wounds, acute wounds, and fractures. The wound healing process is dynamic, complex, and lengthy in four stages involving cells, macrophages, and growth factors. Wound dressing refers to a substance that covers the surface of a wound to prevent infection and secondary damage. Biomaterials applied in wound management have advanced significantly. Natural biomaterials are increasingly used due to their advantages including biomimicry of ECM, convenient accessibility, and involvement in native wound healing. However, there are still limitations such as low mechanical properties and expensive extraction methods. Therefore, their combination with synthetic biomaterials and/or adding bioactive agents has become an option for researchers in this field. In the present study, the stages of natural wound healing and the effect of biomaterials on its direction, type, and level will be investigated. Then, different types of polysaccharides and proteins were selected as desirable natural biomaterials, polymers as synthetic biomaterials with variable and suitable properties, and bioactive agents as effective additives. In the following, the structure of selected biomaterials, their extraction and production methods, their participation in wound healing, and quality control techniques of biomaterials-based wound dressings will be discussed.

A novel starch-active lytic polysaccharide monooxygenase discovered with bioinformatics screening and its application in textile desizing

BackgroundLytic polysaccharide monooxygenases (LPMOs) catalyzing the oxidative cleavage of different types of polysaccharides have potential to be used in various industries. However, AA13 family LPMOs which specifically catalyze starch substrates have relatively less members than AA9 and AA10 families to limit their application range. Amylase has been used in enzymatic desizing treatment of cotton fabric for semicentury which urgently need for new assistant enzymes to improve reaction efficiency and reduce cost so as to promote their application in the textile industry.ResultsA total of 380 unannotated new genes which probably encode AA13 family LPMOs were discovered by the Hidden Markov model scanning in this study. Ten of them have been successfully heterologous overexpressed. AlLPMO13 with the highest activity has been purified and determined its optimum pH and temperature as pH 5.0 and 50 °C. It also showed various oxidative activities on different substrates (modified corn starch > amylose > amylopectin > corn starch). The results of enzymatic textile desizing application showed that the best combination of amylase (5 g/L), AlLPMO13 (5 mg/L), and H2O2 (3 g/L) made the desizing level and the capillary effects increased by 3 grades and more than 20%, respectively, compared with the results treated by only amylase.ConclusionThe Hidden Markov model constructed basing on 34 AA13 family LPMOs was proved to be a valid bioinformatics tool for discovering novel starch-active LPMOs. The novel enzyme AlLPMO13 has strong development potential in the enzymatic textile industry both concerning on economy and on application effect.

In vitro gastric digestion of polysaccharides in mixed dispersions: Evaluating the contribution of human salivary α-amylase on starch molecular breakdown

The aim of this work was to investigate the impact of the addition of salivary α-amylase on starch hydrolysis in protein-containing dispersions during an in vitro digestion process. In vitro digestion provides useful insights on the fate of nutrients during gastro-intestinal transit in complex food matrices, an important aspect to consider when developing highly nutritious foods. Many foods contain polysaccharides, and as their disruption in the gastric stage is limited, salivary α-amylase is often neglected in in vitro studies. A reference study on the effect of salivary α-amylase using one of the most advanced and complex in vitro digestion models (INFOGEST) is, however, not available. Hence, this work reports the gastrointestinal breakdown of three mixed dispersions containing whey protein isolate with different polysaccharides: potato starch, pectin from citrus peel and maize starch. The latter was also studied after heating. No polysaccharide or salivary α-amylase-dependent effect on protein digestion was found, based on the free NH2 and SDS-PAGE. However, in the heat-treated samples, the addition of salivary α-amylase showed a significantly higher starch hydrolysis compared to the sample without α-amylase, due to the gelatinization of the starch granules, which improved the accessibility of the starch molecules to the enzyme. This work demonstrated that the presence of different types of polysaccharides does not affect protein digestion, but also it emphasizes the importance of considering the influence of processing on food structure and its digestibility, even in the simplest model systems.

Antioxidant Activity of Polysaccharides From Natural Sources

Oxidative stress is associated with the development of many diseases, such as chronic inflammation, cardiovascular disease and cancer. Antioxidants can scavenge free radicals in the body, reduce the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and effectively prevent oxidative stress. Polysaccharide is a antioxidants that widely found in natural resources, which is a kind of high molecular polymer with antioxidant activity. It can prevent oxidative stress and play a role in disease prevention through various mechanisms. In this paper, the different types of polysaccharides were summarized, such as plant polysaccharides, algal polysaccharides, microbial polysaccharides and animal polysaccharides, and their antioxidant mechanism and application in the treatment of disease were also discussed. we hope this review can offer some theoretical basis and inspiration for the antioxidant activity study and application of polysaccharides from natural resources.

Bioactive interpenetrating hybrids of poly(hydroxyethyl methacrylate-co-glycidyl methacrylate): Effect of polysaccharide types on structural peculiarities and multifunctionality

Crosslinked poly(hydroxyethyl methacrylate-co-glycidyl methacrylate) hybrids prepared in the same experimental condition by adding various polysaccharides of different chemical types; inulin, Na-alginate, starch and κ-Carrageenan were qualitatively compared. The results are presented to extract relevant physicochemical properties for qualitative comparison of structures within the same synthesis batch. Elastic properties and swelling degree of hybrids can be tightly regulated using different types of polysaccharides and by controlling effective cross-linking density. Addition of κ-Carrageenan to copolymer network increased elastic modulus by 6.2-fold in as-prepared state, but greatest increase in effective cross-link density through swelling was observed in alginate-doped gels. An overshooting effect was observed for alginate-doped hybrids; swelling first to a maximum, followed by a gradual deswelling until equilibrium was reached. Compressive elasticity of hybrids is mainly controlled by type of polysaccharides and cross-linking density but also depends on polymerization temperature. The obtained hybrid gels displayed excellent adsorption performance for methyl orange (MO). The highest adsorption capacity was reached with inulin-doped hybrids. The rate of adsorption was very fast and reached equilibrium with 98.9 % efficiency at about 90 min. This approach to modify the properties of hybrid gels with various types of polysaccharides may find wide use in biomaterials and water purification applications.

Interplay between microstructure, mechanical properties, macrostructure breakdown and in vitro gastric digestion of whey protein gels

Gastric digestion of proteins is influenced by multiple factors including microstructure, mechanical properties and structure breakdown during mastication. The interplay between these factors affects protein digestion but is underexplored. This study aimed to investigate the contribution of microstructure, mechanical properties and macrostructure breakdown on in vitro whey protein gastric digestion. Whey protein isolate (WPI) was mixed with different types of polysaccharides (κ-carrageenan, ι-carrageenan, pectin) at various concentrations to obtain heat- or acid-induced gels with distinct microstructures (homogeneous, coarse stranded, protein continuous and bi-continuous) and Young's moduli (E, 19–165 kPa). Structural breakdown during mastication was mimicked crudely by cutting single gel cylinders into several smaller cubes to increase the total surface area by a factor of 2.65. In vitro gastric digestion was measured using the INFOGEST 2.0 protocol with minor modifications. Homogeneous heat-induced WPI/κ-carrageenan gels showed the highest digestion rate followed by protein continuous, coarse stranded and bi-continuous heat-induced WPI/κ-carrageenan gels with similar E. A 1.47-fold increase in E decreased the digestion rate of acid-induced homogeneous WPI/ι-carrageenan gels by a factor of 0.22. In contrast, a 1.13–1.83-fold increase in E barely changed the digestion rate of acid-induced protein continuous WPI/pectin gels. A 2.65-fold increase in total surface area increased the digestion rate of all gels by a factor of 1.35–2.54 depending on microstructure and mechanical properties. We conclude that the microstructure of protein gels affects in vitro protein gastric digestion and the impact of Young's modulus on in vitro protein gastric digestion depends strongly on the microstructure of protein gels.

Characterization of macrophage activation after treatment with polysaccharides from ginseng according to heat processing

The worldwide persistence of infectious diseases is a significant public health issue. Consequently, studying immunomodulatory ingredients present in natural products, such as ginseng, is important for developing new treatment options. Here, we extracted three different types of polysaccharides from white (P-WG), red (P-RG), and heat-processed (P-HPG) ginseng and analyzed their chemical properties and immunostimulatory activity against RAW 264.7 murine macrophages. Carbohydrates were the main components of all three polysaccharide types, while uronic acid and protein levels were relatively low. Chemical analysis indicated that the content of carbohydrates (total sugar) increased with processing temperature, while that of uronic acid decreased. Treatment with P-WG, P-RG or P-HPG stimulated nitric oxide (NO) production and increased tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) and interleukin (IL)-6 levels in RAW 264.7 macrophages, with P-WG showing the highest activity among the three polysaccharides. The expression of inducible NO synthase, which affects NO secretion, was highest in the macrophages treated with P-WG. Analysis of intracellular signaling pathways showed that mitogen-activated protein kinases (ERK, JNK, and p38) and NF-kB p65 were strongly phosphorylated by P-WG in macrophages but were only moderately phosphorylated by P-RG and P-HPG. Collectively, these results suggest that the polysaccharides isolated from ginseng undergo different changes in response to heat processing and display different chemical compositions and immune-enhancing activities.

Regulation on gel textures of Nicandra physalodes (Linn.) Gaertn. pectin by its synergistic interaction with sodium alginate

Synergism between different types of polysaccharides is important to imparting textural preferences and decreasing product costs. In this study, Nicandra physalodes (Linn.) Gaertn. pectin (NPGP) was found to synergistically interact with sodium alginate (SA) under an acidification process by glucono-δ-lactone (GDL) addition. This synergistic interaction led to the formation of much stronger NPGP/SA mixed gels than the pure NPGP and SA gels. During the acidification process, the pH values corresponding to the onset of the synergistic gelation slightly varied depending on NPGP to SA mixing ratios, but in all systems, the synergistic gelation was initiated at pH < 3.6, indicating that sufficient electrostatic suppression on NPGP and SA chains is required for the synergistic gelation. To this end, the addition of a small amount of Na + (0.1%, w/v ) slightly promoted the gelation process. Moreover, the optimum synergistic ratio in the mixed gels was unchanged irrespective of Na + addition, always located at NPGP:SA = 4:6. In order to reveal the network type, theoretical simulations including “iso-strain”, “iso-stress” and “additivity” models were further performed, which suggested that the network structure in mixed NPGP/SA gels is synergistic network rather than phase separated or interpenetrating networks. Further measurements on gel stability suggested that the synergistic NPGP/SA gels showed good freeze-thawing stability, while heating at 80 °C significantly decreased the gel strength, especially at high SA ratios. Overall, these results highlight the potential application of NPGP and SA mixtures in formulations of acidic gel foods. • NPGP can synergistically interact with sodium alginate (SA) under acidic media. • The optimum synergistic ratio between NPGP and SA is 4:6. • Addition of Na + did not change the optimum synergistic ratio. • The network type in the mixed gels was recognized as synergistic network.

Microbial biofilms are shaped by the constant dialogue between biological and physical forces in the extracellular matrix.

Microbial biofilms are shaped by the constant dialogue between biological and physical forces in the extracellular matrix.

Polysaccharides for Medical Technology: Properties and Applications.

Over the past decade, the use of polysaccharides has gained tremendous attention in the field of medical technology. They have been applied in various sectors such as tissue engineering, drug delivery system, face mask, and bio-sensing. This review article provides an overview and background of polysaccharides for biomedical uses. Different types of polysaccharides, for example, cellulose and its derivatives, chitin and chitosan, hyaluronic acid, alginate, and pectin are presented. They are fabricated in various forms such as hydrogels, nanoparticles, membranes, and as porous mediums. Successful development and improvement of polysaccharide-based materials will effectively help users to enhance their quality of personal health, decrease cost, and eventually increase the quality of life with respect to sustainability.

Structural identification of active moiety in anti-tumor metastatic polysaccharide purified from fermented barley by sequential enzymatic hydrolysis

The potent anti-cancer metastatic effects induced by the immunostimulatory activities of intravenously administered BF–I, an active polysaccharide purified from fermented barley, were previously evaluated. This study aimed to evaluate the anti-cancer metastatic effect of orally administered BF–I and elucidated the microstructure and active moiety of BF–I using sequential enzymatic hydrolysis. In experiments using Colon26-M3.1 carcinoma, prophylactic oral administration of BF–I potently suppressed lung cancer metastasis. Furthermore, gas chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis of partially methylated alditol acetate showed that BF–I comprised 15 different glycosyl linkages, including 4-linked Xylp (16.1%), terminal Araf (12.4%), 4-linked Glcp (32.8%), 3-linked Glcp (13.5%), 3,6-linked Glcp (1.5%), and 3,6-linked Galp (5.3%). These glycosyl linkage combinations are typical for arabinoxylan, yeast-derived β-glucan, barley-derived β-glucan, and type II arabinogalactan. To clarify the microstructure, BF–I was sequentially degraded via linkage-specific enzymatic hydrolysis using five enzymes. Furthermore, the sugar composition, glycosyl linkage, and reactivity with the β-glucosyl Yariv reagent were analyzed, along with sequencing based on tandem mass spectra of partially degraded fragment fractions. The results confirmed that BF–I comprises a mixture of four different types of polysaccharides (arabinoxylan, yeast-derived β-glucan, barley-derived β-glucan, and type II arabinogalactan) with similar molecular weights. Furthermore, different polysaccharides contribute significantly to cytokine (interleukin-6, -12, and tumor necrosis factor-α) secretion by peritoneal macrophages. Therefore, the potent anti-cancer metastatic activity of BF–I is proposed to be related to the immunostimulatory activities of the four different types of polysaccharides.

Mechanically tunable ion-crosslinked alginate-based gradient hydrogels by electrolysis-electrophoresis method

Introducing the gradient structure into ion-crosslinked polysaccharide (ICP) hydrogels is an effective strategy to expand their application scope in biomedicine and smart materials. However, fast gelation between polysaccharide and metal ion makes it difficult to construct/regulate gradient structure. Here, we developed a new method to address the issue by combining electrolysis with electrophoresis. Making use of the gradual generation of copper ions from the Cu anode and continuous migration to the cathode, a Cu2+-crosslinked sodium alginate (SA)-based hydrogel was obtained with both crosslinking density gradient and SA distribution gradient. The gradient structure can be conveniently adjusted to achieve excellent mechanical properties and delicate patterning. The electrolysis-electrophoresis method is successfully extended to versatile hydrogels by varying different metal electrodes (Fe or Zn electrodes), or different types of polysaccharides (chitosan or sodium carboxymethyl cellulose). This work opens a new insight for designing gradient ICP hydrogels and provides the potential for bionic applications.

Recent Advancements of Polysaccharides to Enhance Quality and Delay Ripening of Fresh Produce: A Review.

The freshness of fruits and vegetables plays a significant role in consumers’ decision to purchase a product at the supermarket. Fresh-cut products are the latest trend in fulfilling society’s restless needs, and the food industry is faced with the challenge of maintaining the quality of fresh produce. The food industry is concerned with the natural maturation and degradation of fruits and vegetables, primarily due to enzymatic reactions. It has been demonstrated that polysaccharide coatings effectively preserve the freshness of these products, extending their shelf life depending on the preservation method used. This review informs readers about the different types of polysaccharides and their novel applications as natural food preservatives in the past five years (2018–2022). The key findings summarized the properties of the antimicrobial agent, the molecular mechanism of action, coating methods, and formulation for the preservation approach. Additionally, we discuss the scientific factors influencing polysaccharide processing and preservation efficacy, allowing it to be used in post-harvest management.

Bioinformatic Analysis of Lytic Polysaccharide Monooxygenases Reveals the Pan-Families Occurrence of Intrinsically Disordered C-Terminal Extensions.

Lytic polysaccharide monooxygenases (LPMOs) are monocopper enzymes secreted by many organisms and viruses. LPMOs catalyze the oxidative cleavage of different types of polysaccharides and are today divided into eight families (AA9–11, AA13–17) within the Auxiliary Activity enzyme class of the CAZy database. LPMOs minimal architecture encompasses a catalytic domain, to which can be appended a carbohydrate-binding module. Intriguingly, we observed that some LPMO sequences also display a C-terminal extension of varying length not associated with any known function or fold. Here, we analyzed 27,060 sequences from different LPMO families and show that 60% have a C-terminal extension predicted to be intrinsically disordered. Our analysis shows that these disordered C-terminal regions (dCTRs) are widespread in all LPMO families (except AA13) and differ in terms of sequence length and amino-acid composition. Noteworthily, these dCTRs have so far only been observed in LPMOs. LPMO-dCTRs share a common polyampholytic nature and an enrichment in serine and threonine residues, suggesting that they undergo post-translational modifications. Interestingly, dCTRs from AA11 and AA15 are enriched in redox-sensitive, conditionally disordered regions. The widespread occurrence of dCTRs in LPMOs from evolutionarily very divergent organisms, hints at a possible functional role and opens new prospects in the field of LPMOs.

Essential Oil-Containing Polysaccharide-Based Edible Films and Coatings for Food Security Applications.

The wastage of food products is a major challenge for the food industry. In this regard, the use of edible films and coatings have gained much attention due to their ability to prevent the spoilage of the food products during handling, transport, and storage. This has effectively helped in extending the shelf-life of the food products. Among the various polymers, polysaccharides have been explored to develop edible films and coatings in the last decade. Such polymeric systems have shown great promise in microbial food safety applications. The inclusion of essential oils (EOs) within the polysaccharide matrices has further improved the functional properties of the edible films and coatings. The current review will discuss the different types of polysaccharides, EOs, methods of preparing edible films and coatings, and the characterization methods for the EO-loaded polysaccharide films. The mechanism of the antimicrobial activity of the EOs has also been discussed in brief.

Effect of different carbon sources on the growth and enzyme production of a toxigenic and a non-toxigenic strain of Aspergillus flavus

Two strains of A. flavus one toxigenic (CECT 2687) and the other non-toxigenic (NRRL 6541) were studied for their genomic potential, growth capacity, and the production of enzymes on simple sugars, polysaccharides, and complex substrates under solid-state fermentation (SSF). According to the genome analysis, this fungus has many genes to degrade different types of polysaccharides and therefore it would be able to grow on different substrates. Both strains grow in all the carbon sources, but visibly CECT2687 grows slower than NRRL6541. However, we propose the growth index (GI) to establish a dry weight-diameter relationship as a more reliable measure that truly shows the growth preferences of the fungus. Considering this, the NRRL6541 shows less growth in 11 of the 16 evaluated carbon sources than CECT2687. Complex substrates were the best carbon source for the growth of both strains. Corncob (CC) induced the production of xylanases, pectinases, and almost all the accessory enzymes evaluated (except for α-xylosidase) this could make it an agricultural waste of interest to produce hemicellulolytic enzymes. Both strains produce a great variety of xylanases and pectinases (pathogenicity factors) making A. flavus a good potential candidate for the degradation of polysaccharides with a high content of xylan and pectin.

Comparison of torrefied and lyophilized Dendrobii Officinalis Caulis (Tiepishihu) by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and two-dimensional correlation spectroscopy

Dendrobii Officinalis Caulis (DOC) is the dried stem of Dendrobium officinale Kimura et Migo, which is often used as tonic herb or functional food for immunoenhancement, antifatigue, hypolipidemic, hypoglycemic, and other activities. Traditionally, the fresh stem of D. officinale should be torrefied to dry. However, it has been concerned that torrefaction may change the polysaccharides, which are the principal structural and active ingredients of DOC. For the optimization of desiccation methods, Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy and two-dimensional correlation spectroscopy (2DCOS) were used in this research to examine the spectral intensity variations of the torrefied and lyophilized DOC samples under the thermal perturbation. It was found that DOC samples composed of different types of polysaccharides showed different changes when torrefied. For glucomannan-rich DOC samples, the heat-induced decrease of polysaccharides was observed. For glucan-rich DOC samples, it was supposed that more other compounds than polysaccharides were destroyed during the torrefaction. In other words, the better desiccation method to retain polysaccharides in glucomannan-rich and glucan-rich DOC samples were lyophilization and torrefaction, respectively. As a feasible technique for the direct and rapid characterization of polysaccharides in herbal samples, FTIR spectroscopy possesses great potential in the high-throughput sorting of DOC materials for the customized desiccation to improve the product quality.

Insights into the Fouling Propensities of Natural Derived Alginate Blocks during the Microfiltration Process

Membrane technology has been one of the most promising techniques to solve the water problem in future. Unfortunately, it suffers from the fouling problem which is ubiquitous in membrane systems. The origin of the bewilderments of the fouling problem lies in the lack of deep understanding. Recent studies have pointed out that the molecular structure of foulant affects its fouling propensity which has been ignored in the past. In this study, the filtration behaviors of alginate blocks derived from the same source were comprehensively explored. Alginate blocks share the same chemical composition but differ from each other in molecular structure. The alginate was first extracted from natural seaweed using calcium precipitation and ion-exchange methods. Extracted alginate was further fractionized into MG-, MM- and GG-blocks and the characteristics of the three blocks were examined by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM) observations, and transparent exopolymer particles’ (TEPs) measurements. Results showed that MG-, MM- and GG-blocks had the same functional groups, but they showed different intermolecular interactions. TEP formation from MG-, MM- and GG-blocks revealed that the molecule crosslinking of them decreased in the order of MM-blocks &gt; GG-blocks &gt; MG-blocks. It was further found from microfiltration tests that these alginate blocks had completely different fouling propensities which can be explained by the TEP formation. TEPs would accumulate on membrane surfaces and worked as a pre-filter to avoid serious pore blocking of membrane. That all suggested that the membrane fouling was closely related to the molecular structure of foulant. It is expected that this study can provide useful insights into the fouling propensities of different types of polysaccharides during filtration processes.

Physicochemical properties and stability of Moringa oleifera seed oil-in-water emulsions as affected by different types of polysaccharide and emulsifier

Moringa oleifera seed oil is a promising medicinal oil and converting it into a functional food emulsion is of current interest to widen its consumption. This study was aimed to investigate physicochemical properties and stability of M. oleifera seed oil-in-water emulsions as affected by interaction between polysaccharide i.e. xanthan gum (XG), guar gum (GG), carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) and emulsifier i.e. sodium caseinate (NaCas) and whey protein isolate (WPI). Significant (p &lt; 0.05) lower pH values in XG-WPI (4.98) and XG-NaCas (4.72) emulsions were observed as opposed to other emulsions (5.19-5.40). The interaction between XG-WPI and XG-NaCas has resulted in significant (p &lt; 0.05) higher apparent viscosity values (at 0.42s-1) of their respective emulsions with 35.10 and 10.75 Pa.s respectively, as compared to other emulsions (0.35–0.85 Pa.s). These desirable characteristics of pH and viscosity profile had favoured an excellent creaming stability (no phase separation) of the emulsions. Regardless of emulsifier used, XG emulsions exhibited a significant (p &lt; 0.05) higher scavenging activity (34.84 – 41.52%) towards 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl free radicals than other emulsions. Total oxidation values (11.18 – 24.93) under an accelerated oxidation period (48 hours, 60°C) were more influenced by peroxide value rather than anisidine value. All WPI emulsions and CMC-NaCas emulsion showed significant (p &lt; 0.05) low total oxidation values relative to other emulsions. All emulsions however showed no significant difference in their turbidity loss rate (1.2 – 3.3 x 10-3). These findings have made possible of producing a good quality of a functional food emulsion based on M. oliefera seed oil, particularly when the system was stabilized by XG-WPI. This was mainly due to their positive interaction that has affected on pH and viscosity of emulsion, which eventually led to a good stability towards creaming and inhibition of lipid oxidation.

Polysaccharide-Based Controlled Release Systems for Therapeutics Delivery and Tissue Engineering: From Bench to Bedside.

Polysaccharides or polymeric carbohydrate molecules are long chains of monosaccharides that are linked by glycosidic bonds. The naturally based structural materials are widely applied in biomedical applications. This article covers four different types of polysaccharides (i.e., alginate, chitosan, hyaluronic acid, and dextran) and emphasizes their chemical modification, preparation approaches, preclinical studies, and clinical translations. Different cargo fabrication techniques are also presented in the third section. Recent progresses in preclinical applications are then discussed, including tissue engineering and treatment of diseases in both therapeutic and monitoring aspects. Finally, clinical translational studies with ongoing clinical trials are summarized and reviewed. The promise of new development in nanotechnology and polysaccharide chemistry helps clinical translation of polysaccharide‐based drug delivery systems.