Different Levels Of Irrigation Water Research Articles

The impact of global cropland irrigation on soil carbon dynamics

Irrigation can increase crop yields and could be a key climate adaptation strategy. At present, under the background of increasing food demand and continuous expansion of irrigation cropland, there still uncertainties about the soil carbon dynamics under the change of irrigation water volume and irrigated area in view of large-scale spatial heterogeneity. Therefore, this paper uses space-for-time + meta-analysis and a two-step methodology based on the residual trend analysis to quantitatively analyze the relationship between soil organic carbon (SOC) and soil respiration (Rs) in response to fluctuations in irrigation water volume and irrigated land extents. Here we show that the irrigation water volume within 100–1000 mm had a negative impact on SOC, and the impact was correlated with the irrigation water volume. Different levels of irrigation water manifest distinct effects on SOC content across varying soil depths. When irrigation water quantities are less than 700 mm, the impact on SOC content in the 0–30 cm depth layer surpasses that in the 30–200 cm depth layer. Conversely, when irrigation water quantities equal or exceed 700 mm, this pattern is reversed. The overall impact of irrigation on SOC stock at a depth of 0–200 cm was −14.88±6.7%. Tillage, planting intensity, topography, and soil type within irrigated cropland all exert variable impacts on SOC content. Whether these influences are deleterious or beneficial hinges predominantly upon the balance between the augmentation of SOC stock due to heightened carbon inputs from crops and the reduction of SOC through alterations in microbial activity. Mann-Kendall trend analysis showed that from 2000 to 2015, the overall Rs of cropland showed an increasing trend, with an increase rate of 3.67 g/m2/year. The increase of global Rs is mainly driven by climate change factors (temperature, precipitation and solar radiation), while the decrease of Rs in a small number of areas is mainly driven by management practices (fertilizer nitrogen, irrigation, and tillage). Our study further quantifies the impact of irrigation on soil carbon dynamics, thereby offering potential pathways and data support for the advancement of sustainable agriculture.

Soil Manuring and Genetic Variation Conjunctively Surmount the Partial Drought Stress in Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.)

Crop growth is negatively influenced under water-stress conditions, which is among the most yield-limiting factors significantly decreasing crop yield. This study evaluated the effect of water-deficit stress on physiological, bio-chemical and yield attributes of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) under both constantly wet and water-stressed conditions on two wheat varieties (UJALA-14, SARC-4). Further, the combined impacts of crop genetic variability and organic manuring in soil was studied for overcoming the partial drought stress in wheat. Treatments of different levels of irrigation water alone or with farmyard manure (FYM) @ 20 Mg ha‒1 were compared as: constantly wet irrigation (control), irrigation intensity equal to field capacity (FC), ½ FC + FYM, and ¼ FC + FYM. Crop growth, physiological and chlorophyll as well as sodium and potassium contents were measured. The findings of current study exhibited that shortage of water had negative effects on growth, physiological, bio-chemical and yield attributes of wheat. Genotype SARC-4 exhibited superior growth response having constantly wet and field capacity condition, on the other hand UJALA-14 gave better growth response under water stress conditions of ½ FC and ¼ FC when treated with FYM amendment. It is concluded that partial drought stress developed tolerance in wheat genotypes particularly in UJALA-14, which was strengthened with organic amendment. Combined use of drought tolerant varieties and application of FYM as a fertilizer is very effective way to enhance crop yield.

Integrative Application of Organic and Inorganic Fertilizers on Some Soil Properties and Growth of Faba Bean under Different Levels of Irrigation Water

Integrative Application of Organic and Inorganic Fertilizers on Some Soil Properties and Growth of Faba Bean under Different Levels of Irrigation Water

Impact of Chitosan on Growth and Yield of Lemongrass Plant at Different Levels of Irrigation Water under Sandy Soil Conditions

Impact of Chitosan on Growth and Yield of Lemongrass Plant at Different Levels of Irrigation Water under Sandy Soil Conditions

Effect of potassium fertilization on roselle yield and yield components as well as IWUE under deficit irrigation regimes

This research aimed to investigate different levels of irrigation water and potassium fertilizer on the yield and yield components as well as qualitative properties and irrigation water use efficiency (IWUE) of Roselle (Hibiscus sabdariffa). For this purpose, in 2019 and 2020, a factorial experiment with a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with three replicates was conducted in a semi-dry region. The experimental treatments included three levels of potassium fertilizer 75 t ha−1 (K1), 112.5 t ha-1 (K2), and 150 t ha−1 (K3) (equivalent to 50, 75, and 100% of potassium fertilizer percentage) and four levels of irrigation water including I1 (40%), I2 (60%), I3 (80%), and I4 (100%) of the plant water requirement. At the end of the experiment, quantitative parameters including plant height, weight and number of capsules, dry yield, and IWUE were measured. Further, qualitative parameters such as level of anthocyanin, protein, carbohydrate, proline, chlorophyll a and b were also measured to investigate the effects of water stress and fertilizer stress on the quality of Roselle. Experimental results revealed that the simple effects of irrigation water and potassium fertilizer became significant at 1 and 5% probability levels on all of the measured parameters. The greatest dry yield (600.95 kg ha−1) was obtained from l3K3 treatment. The maximum IWUE was achieved in l2K3 treatment (0.058 kg m−3). However, no significant difference was observed in this regard between l2 and l3. Qualitatively, with the reduction of the depths of irrigation water up to 60% the plant water requirement and with decline in the potassium fertilizer consumption, the level of anthocyanin, protein, carbohydrate, and proline increased by 85.16%, 19.56%, 15.34%, and 28.35% respectively. However, the values of chlorophyll a and b dropped by 42.75 and 24.54% respectively. On the other hand, no significant difference was observed between K1 and K2 in this regard. Thus, considering the water status of the region and deficit of water resources, application of 80% water requirement (treatment l3) would save water consumption, and consuming 75% potassium content (K2 treatment) would enhance the quality and modify the damages resulting from drought stress in Roselle.

Maize response to water, salinity and nitrogen levels: soil and plant ions accumulation

In the present study, some nutritional imbalances, specific ion toxicity and yield-ion concentration relationships in maize under water, nitrogen (N) and salinity stresses were assessed. Effect of different levels of irrigation water (I1=1.0ETc+0.25ETc as leaching, I2 =0.75I1 and I3 =0.5I1) as main plot, salinity of irrigation water (S1=0.6, S2= 2.0 and S3=4.0 dS m-1) as sub-plot and N fertilizer rates (N1=0, N2=150 and N3=300 kg N ha-1) as sub-sub-plot on maize (cv SC 704) were investigated in a split-split-plot design with three replications during 2009 and 2010. Results showed that salts accumulated in soil were 28.4% higher in I2 compared with other irrigation treatments. Soil nitrate concentration was statistically higher under I3 and S1 treatments (83% and 10%, respectively) compared with other irrigation and salinity levels. There was no K+ deficiency caused by salinity; however, salinity resulted in statistically lower K+/Na+ compared with no saline conditions. Plants took up 25% higher N in I2 compared with other irrigation levels. Furthermore, N uptake by plants decreased by an average of 18% under salinity condition indicating that higher N application rate above the required level under saline water application put the environment at the risk of groundwater N contamination. Results of this study confirmed the fact that Na+ accumulation in soil was more detrimental than Cl- accumulation for maize irrigated with saline water. Besides, according to threshold values for soil ions, the optimum levels of irrigation and N fertilizer for maize might be lower under saline water application. Furthermore, based on the grain yield reduction coefficient, maize required a higher level of K+ and K+/Na+ under deficit saline water irrigation for avoiding yield losses.

Effects of wheat straw biochar and irrigation water on hydraulic and chemical properties of a sandy loam soil after faba bean cultivation

Nowadays, applying soil amendments is one of the most important ways to cope with water shortages and improve soil physical properties. In this regard, a greenhouse experiment was conducted to study the effect of different levels of irrigation water and wheat straw biochar on physical and chemical properties of a sandy loam soil, after harvesting faba bean. The experiment was performed with 5 biochar levels (0, 8, 16, 24 and 32 g kg-1) and 3 irrigation levels (100%, 75% and 50% of crop water requirement) using completely randomized design in three replications. Lowering the irrigation level to 50% did not influence soil physical and chemical properties except for saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ks), as Ks was significantly declined under 50% irrigation water levels as compared with full irrigation. Soil bulk density and particle density of 32 g kg-1 biochar treatment (B32) was reduced by 47% and 27%, respectively, while soil porosity and Ks increased as compared to no biochar application (B0). Under B32 treatment, the saturated electrical conductivity increased 5.6 times, and the cation exchange capacity and sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) was increased by 40.3% and 53.6% in comparison with B0, respectively. This made the soil saline (ECe>4 dS/m) but not sodic (SAR-1)1/2). It can be concluded that although, biochar level of 24 g kg-1 did not considerably increase soil water holding capacity compared to B0, it significantly improved the other soil physical and chemical properties, therefore, it can be used as soil amendment.

Productivity of corn and soybean under solid and intercropping plantings with different levels of irrigation water in egypt

Productivity of corn and soybean under solid and intercropping plantings with different levels of irrigation water in egypt

Performance of the Aquacrop model for bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) under irrigation condition

With the evident climatic threats and the limitation of agronomic information for the bean crop, the use of agricultural models is necessary to broaden and disseminate technical knowledge of crop forecasting. The aim of this work was to evaluate the FAO AquaCrop model for bean crop under different levels of irrigation water in agrometeorological conditions of Northeastern Brazil at megatheramal and humid climate. The research was conducted in the period from 11/17/2015 to 02/01/2016. The experimental design was randomized block with four replicates. Treatments were composed of six levels of irrigation on the basis of crop evapotranspiration (ETc) fractions (25, 50, 75, 100, 125 and 150% of ETc). The irrigation effect was evaluated from biomass, dry matter and grain yield data that were observed and simulated using Aquacrop model. One linear meter of plants was collected every 10 days for biometric and destructive analyses. In addition, the soil water content simulated from model was compared with measurements performed by time domain reflectometry. The AquaCrop model was calibrated for common bean during the dry season (October to March) for the region in the 2015/2016 harvest season using experimental data for 100% of ETc. The accuracy of the calibration and validation model was evaluated based on the root mean square error (RMSE), Willmott’s index of agreement (d), correlation coefficient (r) and percentage deviation (D). The model showed good performance between observed and simulated values for soil water content, dry biomass accumulation and grain yield in several water conditions and can assist decision making and water management in irrigated crops.

Effect of Polythene Mulch on Growth and Yield of Sunflower (Helianthus annuus)

The study was undertaken to evaluate the effect of polythene mulch and different levels of irrigation water on growth and yield of sunflower in saline soil of Bangladesh. The sunflower variety Pacific Hysun-33 was the test crop. There were eight treatments consisting two continuous irrigation treatments in crop lines once at 25 DAS, and twice at 25 and 50 DAS and six rhizospheric irrigations at a rate of 125, 250 and 500 ml/plant without polythene mulch and with using polythene mulch.

Response of ‘Flame Seedless’ vines to different levels of irrigation water in the Aconcagua Valley, Chile

Response of ‘Flame Seedless’ vines to different levels of irrigation water in the Aconcagua Valley, Chile

Yield and economic return response of silage maize to different levels of irrigation water in a sub-humid zone

Field studies were conducted during the summers of 2007 and 2008 to determine the response of silage maize (Zea mays L.) to different levels of irrigation water to guide programs for the development of improved irrigation management practices for sub-humid zones. The experiments were carried out in Bursa, Marmara region, Turkey. Silage maize plants (cv. ‘Ada-523’) were subjected to different levels of irrigation using a drip system in the field on a clay-loam soil. Fully irrigated (FI = 100%) plants were irrigated at 100% pan evaporation (Epan) replenishment with 7-day intervals. In other treatments, irrigation was applied as excessive (EI = 125% Epan) and deficit (DI-75 = 75% Epan, DI-50 = 50% Epan, DI-25 = 25% Epan, NI – no irrigation). Plant height, first ear height, stem diameter, number of ears per plant and net income decreased with decreases in the amount of irrigation, but the effect of soil water deficit on the number of leaves per plant and ear ratio in forage was minor. The highest forage yields were obtained with EI (125% Epan), FI (100% Epan) and DI-75 (75% Epan) treatments. FI treatment produced the highest net income based forage yield. Severe soil water deficit substantially reduced forage yields and net income in both years. The results showed that full irrigation during the whole growing season is preferable for higher forage yield and net income. However, in regions of water scarcity, farmers should adopt the deficit irrigation (DI75 = 75%, DI-50 = 50% and DI-25 = 25% Epan) approach to achieve economically sustainable crop production. As an alternative to full irrigation during the entire growing season, the irrigation at a rate of DI-75% Epan can be recommended as optimal level because it achieved irrigation water savings of 25%, an increase of 16% in forage yield irrigation water use efficiency, satisfactory crop morphological characters and an acceptable net income with a yield loss of only approximately 7% compared with full irrigation.

Estimation of yield and dry matter of winter wheat using logistic model under different irrigation water regimes and nitrogen application rates

Complex simulation models need considerable input data that may be unavailable. In this study, based on growing degree days, a simple and empirical logistic model was used to predict top dry matter (DM) and grain yield (GY) of winter wheat in a semiarid area. For calibration and validation of the model, winter wheat cv. Shiraz was cultivated for two growing seasons (2009–2010 and 2010–2011) under different levels of irrigation water and nitrogen application rates. The coefficients of the logistic model and the harvest index were related to the seasonal amount of applied water (I) plus rainfall (R) and applied nitrogen plus residual soil mineral nitrogen (N + Nr) with good accuracy in 2009–2010. The values of DM were estimated using the developed empirical logistic model during the growing season in 2010–2011. Results also indicated that there was a good agreement between the measured and predicted GY in 2010–2011 with fair accuracy. Therefore, it is concluded that the presented model is appropriate for prediction of DM and GY of winter wheat at the study region.

Optimizing levels of water and nitrogen applied through drip irrigation for yield, quality, and water productivity of processing tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.)

The main goal of this study was to evaluate the effects of different levels of irrigation water and nitrogen on yield, quality, and water productivity of processing tomato grown in clay-loam soil. Three water levels of pan evaporation (Epan) replenishment applied via drip irrigation (1.00 × Epan, 0.75 × Epan, and 0.50 × Epan) and four N application rates with fertigation (0, 60, 120, and 180 kg N·ha−1) were tested in the sub-humid climate conditions of Turkey during the 2010 and 2011 growing seasons. The highest marketable yields were observed with full irrigation (1.00 × Epan) for each season. Decreasing irrigation rate generally improved dry matter, total soluble solids, total sugars, titratable acidity, lycopene and total carotene, and decreased fruit NO3-N content and fruit total protein content slightly. The highest water productivity was obtained with a moderate soil water deficit (0.75 × Epan). The 180 kg N·ha−1 fertilization rate produced the highest values for marketable yield, fruit size, total soluble solids yield, NO3-N, and total protein content. Increasing N rate also increased the values of fruit total sugars and titratable acidity. Increasing both irrigation and N levels increased the NO3-N and protein contents. The higher lycopene and total carotene values were obtained in the treatments of 60 and 120 kg N·ha−1. Increasing N supply improved the water productivity with the 3 irrigation application ratios. Considering the quantity and quality for the processing and water productivity, the 0.75 × Epan irrigation regime and a 120 or 180 kg·ha−1 nitrogen supply can considered optimal.

Maize response to water, salinity and nitrogen levels: yield-water relation, water-use efficiency and water uptake reduction function

Water, salinity and nitrogen are the major factors affecting maize production in arid and semi-arid areas. The objectives of this study were to investigate the effects of different water, salinity and nitrogen levels on yield-water relationships, water use, water productivity (WP), water use efficiency (WUE) and water uptake reduction function by maize hybrid SC-704 in a semi-arid area and silty clay loam soil. A split-split-plot design with three replications in two years of 2009 and 2010 was conducted. The different levels of irrigation water considered as main plot, salinity of irrigation water as sub-plot and nitrogen fertilizer rate as sub-sub-plot. Irrigation treatments consisted of I1 (1.0ETc+0.25ETc as leaching), I2 (0.75I1) and I3 (0.50I1) applied at 7-day intervals. The salinity treatments of irrigation were 0.6 (fresh water), 2.0 and 4.0 dS m -1 . There were also three nitrogen (N) treatments including 0, 150 and 300 kg N ha -1 . Results showed that the actual crop ET and transpiration (T) were significantly less in I3 as compared to I1 treatments as 42 and 43%, respectively. Besides, T values under S3 were statistically less than that in S1 treatment as 12%. The soil evaporation (E) values were 26, 31 and 27% of ET at I1, I2 and I3 treatments, respectively and its values significantly increased with increasing salinity levels of irrigation water. The minimum and maximum amount of E occurred at I3S1N3 and I1S3N3, respectively. The study showed that deficit irrigation as 0.50I1 and 0.75 I1 were the optimum levels of irrigation to access the highest WP and WUE for dry matter (DM) and grain yield (GY) respectively. Besides, S1 was the optimum treatment for achievement of highest WP and WUE for DM and GY. Results also indicated that the optimum treatment for WP and WUE for GY was I2S1N3. Furthermore, N fertilization could not statistically improve WP and WUE beyond 150 kg N ha -1 . The yield response factor to water showed that maize GY was more sensitive to water than its DM. Results also

Maize response to water, salinity and nitrogen levels: physiological growth parameters and gas exchange

A split-split-plot design with three replications in two years of 2009 and 2010 was conducted to investigate the effect of different levels of irrigation water (main plot), salinity of irrigation water (sub-plot) and nitrogen fertilizer rate (sub-subplot) on maize growth rate and gas exchange. Irrigation treatments were I1 (1.0 crop evapotranspiration (ETc)+0.25ETc as leaching), I2 (0.75I1) and I3 (0.5I1) applied at 7-day intervals. The salinity treatments of irrigation were 0.6 (fresh water), 2.0 and 4.0 dS m -1 . There were also three nitrogen (N) treatments including 0, 150 and 300 kg N ha -1 . Results showed that vegetative growth stage of maize in salinity stress lasted 5% more than that in water stress. The most sensitive trait under water, salinity and nitrogen stress was grain yield (GY). The optimum treatment for maize production is full fresh water application by 150 kg N ha -1 . Results also showed that crop growth rate (CGR) was statistically higher in I1 and I2 as 58 and 34% relative to I3 treatment, respectively. Furthermore, CGR was statistically lower in S2 and S3 as 10 and 18% relative to S1, respectively. Besides, N application significantly increased CGR by an average of 15% as compared with no N rate. The net assimilation rate (NAR) reached its maximum value in I2, S2 and N2 relative to other treatments indicating that NAR did not necessarily occurred at maximum LAI conditions. In general, maize had statistically greater NAR in pollination and filling stages relative to other growth stages. Results of gas exchange for maize as a sensitive crop to water deficit, showed that photosynthesis rate (An) and stomatal conductance (gs) were statistically decreased in water deficit by an average of 30 and 43% as compared to full irrigation treatment, respectively. However, reduction in An and gs in salinity conditions was the same as 13% compared to no salinity treatment. Transpiration rate (T) was statistically lower under water and salinity stress by an average of 75 and 26% as compared to no water and salinity stress, respectively. The ratio of An/gs in I2 and I3 was

RESPONSE OF ONION TO DIFFERENT LEVELS OF IRRIGATION WATER AND FERTILIZATION: (II) BIOMASS, YIELD, SIZE CLASSES, QUALITY, AND WATER USE

An experiment was conducted to study the effect of different levels of irrigation water and NPK fertilizers on bulb yield and quality of onion (Allium cepa L.). Four levels of irrigation (65, 75, 85, and 100% of ETc) and four rates of NPK fertilizers (0, 50, 75, and 100% of the applied recommended rate of NPK) were arranged in a randomized complete block design, replicated three times. Onion yield, marketable yield, dry bulb yield, total dry biomass, WUEy of total yield, WUEm of marketable yield, WUEd of dry yield, TSS, N, P, and K were determined under trickle irrigation on a clay loam soil in 2011 and 2012. High yields were observed for the 100 and 85 % ETc with 100 and 75 % NPK treatments. The increase in applied water level significantly decreased the percentage of dry matter and total dry biomass in the onion bulb and the increase in NPK rates increased significantly the percentage of dry matter in the onion bulb in both years. There were no significant effect on WUEy and WUEm when decreasing the water level from 100% ETc to 85 % ETc and decreasing the NPK rate from 100 % to 75 %. The interaction between applied water levels and NPK application rates showed that the maximum significant increase in TSS, N, P, and K was with low water levels and higher levels of NPK rates in both 2011 and 2012 seasons.

Crescimento e produção da mamoneira cultivada sob diferentes níveis de salinidade da água de irrigação e doses de nitrogênio

The castor bean ( Ricinus communis L.) is a plant belonging to the family Euphorbiaceae , and stands for the rusticity and adaptation to adverse conditions of climate and soil, for the fast growth, high production and considerable oil content in its seeds. In this context, this study we conducted to evaluate the effect of different levels of irrigation water of salinity and nitrogen on the growth and yield of castor bean cv. BRS Energia. The experiment was conducted in lysimeters under field conditions, at the Centro de Ciências e Tecnologia Agroalimentar, of Universidade Federal de Campina Grande. A complete randomized block design in a 5 x 5 factorial design with three replications. Treatments included a combination of five levels of electrical conductivity of irrigation water (0.4, 1.4, 2.4, 3.4 and 4.4 dS m-1) and five doses of nitrogen (50, 75; 100, 125 and 150% of the recommended dose). The number of leaves, stem diameter, plant height, dry mass of stems and leaves, and fruit number in primary raceme of castor bean cv. BRS Energia were linearly and negatively affected by irrigation water salinity from 0.4 dS m-1, the dry mass of leaves and production of primary cluster are variables more sensitive to salt stress, increasing doses of nitrogen fertilization promoted at harvest, increase in dry weight of stem and leaves and number of fruit in primary cluster; applying increasing doses of nitrogen reduced the effect of salinity on stem diameter of castor bean cv. BRS Energia.

Crescimento e produção da mamoneira cultivada sob diferentes níveis de salinidade da água de irrigação e doses de nitrogênio

The castor bean ( Ricinus communis L.) is a plant belonging to the family Euphorbiaceae , and stands for the rusticity and adaptation to adverse conditions of climate and soil, for the fast growth, high production and considerable oil content in its seeds. In this context, this study we conducted to evaluate the effect of different levels of irrigation water of salinity and nitrogen on the growth and yield of castor bean cv. BRS Energia. The experiment was conducted in lysimeters under field conditions, at the Centro de Ciencias e Tecnologia Agroalimentar, of Universidade Federal de Campina Grande. A complete randomized block design in a 5 x 5 factorial design with three replications. Treatments included a combination of five levels of electrical conductivity of irrigation water (0.4, 1.4, 2.4, 3.4 and 4.4 dS m-1) and five doses of nitrogen (50, 75; 100, 125 and 150% of the recommended dose). The number of leaves, stem diameter, plant height, dry mass of stems and leaves, and fruit number in primary raceme of castor bean cv. BRS Energia were linearly and negatively affected by irrigation water salinity from 0.4 dS m-1, the dry mass of leaves and production of primary cluster are variables more sensitive to salt stress, increasing doses of nitrogen fertilization promoted at harvest, increase in dry weight of stem and leaves and number of fruit in primary cluster; applying increasing doses of nitrogen reduced the effect of salinity on stem diameter of castor bean cv. BRS Energia.

Pinhão-manso: crescimento sob condições diferenciadas de irrigação e de adubação no semiárido nordestino

Uma das alternativas para ocupação do espaço deixado pelo algodão no semiárido cearense é o cultivo do pinhão-manso (Jatropha curcas L.) visando à produção do biodiesel. Face ao exposto, realizou-se este trabalho de campo para avaliar os efeitos de diferentes lâminas aplicadas (735,53; 963,30; 1.191,03; 1.418,82 e 1.646,60 mm) e níveis de adubação nitrogenada (0; 25; 50 e 75 kg ha-1 de N) no crescimento da cultura do pinhão-manso. Os dados referentes ao crescimento da fitomassa fresca epígea foram obtidos em sete diferentes épocas do ciclo da cultura (30; 60; 90; 120; 150; 180 e 210 dias após poda). De acordo com os resultados, a altura caulinar e a taxa de crescimento relativo em altura caulinar obtiveram comportamento linear e crescente com o incremento das lâminas aplicadas. A época de coleta influenciou não apenas os valores de altura, mas também de diâmetro caulinar obtendo-se, em ambas as variáveis, comportamento linear ao decorrer da condução do experimento. Houve um declínio nos valores da taxa de crescimento relativo em altura e no diâmetro caulinar causado pelos fatores climáticos (temperatura, umidade relativa, pluviosidade e evaporação) e pelo início da floração e formação de frutos.