Different Levels Of Evolution Research Articles

Between but Not Within-Species Variation in the Distribution of Fitness Effects.

New mutations provide the raw material for evolution and adaptation. The distribution of fitness effects (DFE) describes the spectrum of effects of new mutations that can occur along a genome, and is, therefore, of vital interest in evolutionary biology. Recent work has uncovered striking similarities in the DFE between closely related species, prompting us to ask whether there is variation in the DFE among populations of the same species, or among species with different degrees of divergence, that is whether there is variation in the DFE at different levels of evolution. Using exome capture data from six tree species sampled across Europe we characterized the DFE for multiple species, and for each species, multiple populations, and investigated the factors potentially influencing the DFE, such as demography, population divergence, and genetic background. We find statistical support for the presence of variation in the DFE at the species level, even among relatively closely related species. However, we find very little difference at the population level, suggesting that differences in the DFE are primarily driven by deep features of species biology, and those evolutionarily recent events, such as demographic changes and local adaptation, have little impact.

Structural Variation Patterns in Xylem Vessels and Parenchyma Cells and Their Association with Tree Evolution

Xylem vessels and parenchyma cells perform functions such as water transport and nutrient storage in trees. However, they are highly variable in different trees. Therefore, this study aimed to explore the structural change patterns in vessels and parenchyma cells in the sapwood, transition wood, and heartwood of tree species with different degrees of evolution. The structural characteristics of the two types of cells in the sapwood, transitional wood, and heartwood were measured in six species with different levels of evolution, namely, Michelia macclurei Dandy, Cinnamomum camphora (L.) presl, Erythrophleum fordii Oliv, Melaleuca leucadendron L., Parashorea chinensis Wang Hsie and Tectona grandis L.F. The results showed that the more evolved species had larger earlywood vessel lumen diameters, thicker walls, and wider hydraulic diameters, as well as smaller latewood vessel densities, reflecting better water transport effectiveness and higher safety. From the sapwood to the transition wood and heartwood, the earlywood vessel lumen diameter of the more primitive species tended to be stable and then decrease, while that of the more evolved species gradually decreased. The latewood vessel density of the more primitive species tended to be stable and then increase, while that of the more evolved species tended to be stable. Additionally, the starch grains of the more primitive species were mainly distributed in the axial or ray parenchyma cells of the sapwood, while those of the more evolved species were abundantly distributed in the axial and ray parenchyma cells of the sapwood, and the distribution of the starch grains was reduced in the transition wood and heartwood. From the sapwood to the heartwood, the ray parenchyma cell fraction tended to be stable in the more primitive species, and tended to be stable before decreasing in the more evolved species. The pit density in the horizontal wall of the ray parenchyma cells tended to be stable and decrease in the more primitive species, while in the more evolved species it tended to be stable or decrease before stabilizing. Overall, trees’ vessels have gradually undergone the optimal selection of vessels during evolution, and the structural variation in the parenchyma cells contributes to their nutrient storage and transport.

О некоторых подходах к исследованию международного порядка в области информации и коммуникации

The article analyzes new trends and features of development of the World Information and Communication Order (WICO). Particular attention is focused on scientific approaches of Russian and Western authors to modern problems of international communication. The role and place of WICO in the world order are shown. While in the 1970–1980s, the disputes around the establishment of the New World Information and Communication Order (NWICO) used to be a popular object of investigation in political, social and legal sciences, this interest died away as soon as NWICO ceased to be a factor in global political debates. However, the authors reject the attitude towards NWICO as being merely a historic phenomenon, because it has been referred to in the UN General Assembly acts until recently. As soon as the world order incorporates the urge for an ideal and objective reality, NWICO is considered as an indispensable part of WICO. In the article, WICO is regarded as a sub-system of the world political order and world economic order, which is greatly influenced by the developments experienced by the latter. In the meantime, WICO itself contains at least four sectoral sub-systems which have reached different levels of evolution: the technical cooperation sub-system, the economic sub-system, the content sub-system and the security sub-system. As far as approximately 55 regional organizations have established their cooperation frameworks in the information and communication field, WICO contains a highly developed regional sub-system which in many cases has reached much more advanced levels than the global WICO. The authors analyze the influence on WICO exerted by such trends in the world order system as non-state actors’ strengthening and the expansion of the order’s comprehensive rules on national policies’ spheres. The WICO evolution is shown as a continuous process throughout which its rules have emerged in the growing number of segments of the information and communication sphere, fueled, on the one hand, by the progress in information receiving, transfer, storage and processing and, on the other hand, by developments in the world political order and world economic order. According to the article, from the middle of the 19th century until early 21st century, this evolution had passed seven stages. The authors expect the upcoming switch to the realistic approach in the further development of WICO, which presupposes a restriction of its rules to those issues, which can be a subject to broad international consensus.

The Importance of Environmental Factors in the Planning of Container Terminals: The Case Study of the Port of Augusta

Container terminals are the main hubs of the global supply chain but, conversely, they play an important role in energy consumption, environmental pollution and even climate change due to carbon emissions. Assessing the environmental impact of this type of port terminal and choosing appropriate mitigation measures is essential to pursue the goals related to a clean environment and ensuring a good quality of life of the inhabitants of port cities. In this paper the authors present a Terminal Decision Support Tool (TDST) for the development of a container terminal that considers both operation efficiency and environmental impacts. The TDST provides environmental impact mitigation measures based on different levels of evolution of the port’s container traffic. An application of the TDST is conducted on the Port of Augusta (Italy), a port that is planning infrastructural interventions in coming years in order to gain a new role as a reference point for container traffic in the Mediterranean.

A Multivariate Proposal for a National Corporate Social Responsibility Practices Index (NCSRPI) for International Settings

This paper proposes a National Corporate Social Responsibility Practices Index (NCSRPI) that determines the level of penetration of corporate social responsibility (CSR) in 29 different countries, considering each nation as a set of institutional factors. The NCSRPI is built through a statistical aggregation process of 22 CSR practices categorized into the social and environmental dimensions that are individually observed for each company. The composite indicator summarizes and synthesizes the entire business reality at the country level, providing pertinent information to evaluate factors related to CSR performance and a vision of national commitment to company sustainability. The results provided by the NCSRPI show that companies around the world adopt similar patterns of behaviour in relation to their CSR practices, but with different levels of evolution. Thus, European countries present themselves as the leaders in issues of social responsibility, the countries of America give preference to ethical issues, and countries belonging to the Asian continent, specifically to Southeast Asia, are shown to be the most laggardly in this regard. In conclusion, the institutional environment in each country establishes for firms a series of opportunities and barriers in their decision to adopt or improve their CSR practices.

Evolutionary Cell Biology of Proteins from Protists to Humans and Plants.

During evolution, the cell as a fine-tuned machine had to undergo permanent adjustments to match changes in its environment, while "closed for repair work" was not possible. Evolution from protists (protozoa and unicellular algae) to multicellular organisms may have occurred in basically two lineages, Unikonta and Bikonta, culminating in mammals and angiosperms (flowering plants), respectively. Unicellular models for unikont evolution are myxamoebae (Dictyostelium) and increasingly also choanoflagellates, whereas for bikonts, ciliates are preferred models. Information accumulating from combined molecular database search and experimental verification allows new insights into evolutionary diversification and maintenance of genes/proteins from protozoa on, eventually with orthologs in bacteria. However, proteins have rarely been followed up systematically for maintenance or change of function or intracellular localization, acquirement of new domains, partial deletion (e.g. of subunits), and refunctionalization, etc. These aspects are discussed in this review, envisaging "evolutionary cell biology." Protozoan heritage is found for most important cellular structures and functions up to humans and flowering plants. Examples discussed include refunctionalization of voltage-dependent Ca2+ channels in cilia and replacement by other types during evolution. Altogether components serving Ca2+ signaling are very flexible throughout evolution, calmodulin being a most conservative example, in contrast to calcineurin whose catalytic subunit is lost in plants, whereas both subunits are maintained up to mammals for complex functions (immune defense and learning). Domain structure of R-type SNAREs differs in mono- and bikonta, as do Ca2+ -dependent protein kinases. Unprecedented selective expansion of the subunit a which connects multimeric base piece and head parts (V0, V1) of H+ -ATPase/pump may well reflect the intriguing vesicle trafficking system in ciliates, specifically in Paramecium. One of the most flexible proteins is centrin when its intracellular localization and function throughout evolution is traced. There are many more examples documenting evolutionary flexibility of translation products depending on requirements and potential for implantation within the actual cellular context at different levels of evolution. From estimates of gene and protein numbers per organism, it appears that much of the basic inventory of protozoan precursors could be transmitted to highest eukaryotic levels, with some losses and also with important additional "inventions."

Narratives of Constitutionalization in the European Union Court of Justice and in the European Court of Human Rights’ Case Law

Abstract Constitutionalization is a peculiar process which characterizes the whole fabric of modern international law. It may however display different levels of evolution and different implications when distinct legal sub-systems are considered: this appears to be especially true at the European level, in particular in the context of the European Union law and of the European Convention on Human Rights. This article aims at unveiling the key elements of the constitutionalization process as developed by the judges sitting in Luxembourg and Strasbourg. In their relevant case law, both the EU Court of Justice (ECJ) and the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) have identified the core concepts and elements lying behind the constitutionalization of their respective legal systems. The analysis of the ECJ and ECtHR case law will be divided into two different parts dealing with the internal dimension from one side, and external one from the other side. While presenting nuances and implications that are linked to the diverse degree of integration of the two legal systems, it may be submitted that the core elements of constitutionalization depicted by the Luxembourg and Strasbourg judges reveal some common patterns.

Wherefore stoch-aptation?

There exists discordance between different levels of evolution because the whole often differs from the sum of the parts. Yet, it is not obvious that the new term 'stoch-aptation' clarifies these differences between evolutionary levels, especially when this term seems largely equivalent to stochastic drift, to mega-evolution, and maybe even to phenotypic plasticity with extreme environments. But this new term forces us to carefully examine what evolutionary biologists mean by randomness, drift, selection, plasticity, and mega-evolution.

Complex genetic interactions underlying expression differences between Drosophila races: Analysis of chromosome substitutions

Regulation of gene expression is usually separated into cis and trans components. The separation may become artificial if much of the variation in expression is under multigenic and epistatic (e.g., cis-by-trans) control. There is hence a need to quantify the relative contribution of cis, trans, and cis-by-trans effects on expression divergence at different levels of evolution. To do so across the whole genome, we analyzed the full set of chromosome-substitution lines between the two behavioral races of Drosophila melanogaster. Our observations: (i) Only approximately 3% of the genes with an expression difference are purely cis regulated. In fact, relatively few genes are governed by simple genetics because nearly 80% of expression differences are controlled by at least two chromosomes. (ii) For 14% of the genes, cis regulation does play a role but usually in conjunction with trans regulation. This joint action of cis and trans effects, either additive or epistatic, is referred to as inclusive cis effect. (iii) The percentage of genes with inclusive cis effect increases to 32% among genes that are strongly differentiated between the two races. (iv) We observed a nonrandom distribution of trans-acting factors, with a substantial deficit on the second chromosome. Between Drosophila racial groups, trans regulation of expression difference is extensive, and cis regulation often evolves in conjunction with trans effects.

Polymorphic Insertions and Deletions in Parabasalian Enolase Genes

Insertions and deletions in gene sequences have been used as characters to infer phylogenetic relationships and, like any character, the information they contain varies in utility between different levels of evolution. In one case, the absence of two otherwise highly conserved deletions in the enolase genes of parabasalian protists has been interpreted as a primitive characteristic that suggests these were among the first eukaryotes. Here, semi-environmental 3'-RACE was used to sample enolases from parabasalia in the hindgut of the termite Zootermopsis angusticolis to examine the conservation of this character within the parabasalia. Parabasalian homologues were found to be polymorphic for these deletions, and the phylogeny of parabasalian enolases shows that the deletion-possessing genes branch within deletion-lacking genes (i.e., they did not form two clearly distinct groups). Phylogenetic incongruence was detected in the carboxy-terminal third of the sequence (in the region of the deletions), but there is no unambiguous evidence for recombination. The polymorphism of this character discredits these deletions as strong evidence for the early origin of parabasalia, although the complex distribution makes it impossible to state whether parabasalian enolases were ancestrally like those of other eukaryotes. These observations stress the importance of strong corroborating evidence when considering insertion and deletion data, and raises some interesting questions about the apparent variation in degree of conservation of these deletions between different eukaryotic groups.

Spatially Resolved Flow-Induced Crystallization Precursors in Isotactic Polystyrene by Simultaneous Small- and Wide-Angle X-ray Microdiffraction

The structural and morphological evolution of shear-induced crystallization precursors generated by pulling a single fiber through a thin layer of molten isotactic polystyrene (i-PS) has been spatially resolved by simultaneous small- and wide-angle X-ray microdiffraction in samples with different thermomechanical histories. Frozen precursor structures with shish-kebab morphology have been detected at different levels of evolution during early stages of their formation, the first step being the development of bundles of few parallel chains oriented along the flow direction (shish) followed by the growth of layered lamellar assemblies (kebabs) simultaneously to the appearance of a very weak wide-angle X-ray diffraction (WAXS) signal corresponding to a crystallinity index lower than 1%. A high degree of orientation of the ordered precursors has been found in the polymer matrix at very close distance from the fiber surface when the sample is quenched to room temperature immediately after cessation of flow; mu...

Chiral response of Oryzeae and Paniceae plants in alpha-methylbenzyl-3-p-tolyl urea agar medium.

The results presented here support the hypothesis that plants of the tribe Oryzeae respond enantioselectively and homogeneously to optically active 1-alpha-methylbenzyl-3-p-tolylurea (MBTU) in root growth inhibition, in contrast to Echinochloa species. The Oryzeae plants tested in this study belong to different genera (Oryza, Leersia, Chikusichloa and Zizania), to different species (O sativa, O glaberrima, O alta, O coarctata, O latifolia, O minuta, O rufipogon), to various ecospecies of Oryza (japonica, indica, japonica x indica, javanica) and to different levels of evolution [cultivated rice (O sativa and O glaberrima) and ancestral wild rice species]. In spite of their different phylogenic status and diverse sensitivity, the root growth of all members of the genus Oryza was inhibited more by R-MBTU than by S-MBTU. Zizania palustris, Z latifolia, Leersia oryzoides and Chikusichloa aquatica belonging to the tribe Oryzeae exhibited similar chiral recognition to the Oryza plants, suggesting that Oryzeae have a common chiral recognition mechanism in their response to optically active MBTUs. In contrast, Echinochloa plants (E crus-galli (L) Beauv var crus-galli and E colonum (L) Link), belonging into subfamily Panicoideae tribe Paniceae, responded in a different way, where their root growth was more sensitive to S-MBTU than to the antipodal R-MBTU. A reverse chiral response between the tribe Oryzeae and the genus Echinochloa was clearly indicated in this study. This diverse response may be relevant to Gramineae classification.

The PDS versus Markarian starburst galaxies: comparing strong and weakIRASemitter at 12 and 25 μm in the nearby Universe

The characteristics of the starburst galaxies from the Pico dos Dias survey (PDS) are compared with those of the nearby UV-bright Markarian starburst galaxies, having the same limit in redshift (vh < 7500 km s 1 ) and absolute B magnitude (MB < 18). An important difference is found: the Markarian galaxies are generally undetected at 12µm and 25µm in IRAS. This is consistent with the UV excess shown by these galaxies and suggests that the youngest star forming regions dominating these galaxies are relatively free of dust. The FIR selection criteria for the PDS is shown to introduce a strong bias towards massive (luminous) and large size late-type spiral galaxies. This is contrary to the Markarian galaxies, which are found to be remarkably rich in smaller size early-type galaxies. These results suggest that only late-type spirals with a large and massive disk are strong emitter at 12µm and 25µm in IRAS in the nearby universe. The Markarian and PDS starburst galaxies are shown to share the same environment. This rules out an explanation of the differences observed in terms of external parameters. These differences may be explained by assuming two different levels of evolution, the Markarian being less evolved than the PDS galaxies. This interpretation is fully consistent with the disk formation hypothesis proposed in Coziol et al. (2000) to explain the special properties of the Markarian SBNG.

Populations of the south-west Pacific malaria vector Anopheles farauti s.s. revealed by ribosomal DNA transcribed spacer polymorphisms.

Malaria in the south-west Pacific is transmitted by members of the Anopheles punctulatus group which comprises 12 cryptic species with overlapping morphology. The most widely distributed species of the group is Anopheles farauti s.s. (An. farauti 1) found throughout northern Australia, Papua New Guinea, eastern Indonesia, the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu. A study of the population structure of this species using PCR-RFLP analysis on the ribosomal DNA internal transcribed spacer 1 reveals five genotypes which had distinct geographical distributions. Where these distributions overlap, genotype hybrids can be identified. Heteroduplex analysis of the ITS2 region reveals combinations of nonhomogenized ITS2 sequences and subsequently seven identifiable genotypes, reflecting the ITS1 distribution. Sequence analysis of these ITS2 polymorphisms reveals a minimum of 13 ITS2 sequence types present in heterogeneous combinations in individual mosquitoes. It appears that there are different levels of evolution occurring within the ITS1 and ITS2 regions. These data suggest that An. farauti s.s. may contain multiple loci for the rDNA gene family or that the homogenization of these regions is relatively slow and can be used in genetic studies of population distribution and structure.

Evolutionary artificial neural networks.

Evolutionary artificial neural networks (EANNs) can be considered as a combination of artificial neural networks (ANNs) and evolutionary search procedures such as genetic algorithms (GAs). This paper distinguishes among three levels of evolution in EANNs, i.e. the evolution of connection weights, architectures and learning rules. It first reviews each kind of evolution in detail and then analyses major issues related to each kind of evolution. It is shown in the paper that although there is a lot of work on the evolution of connection weights and architectures, research on the evolution of learning rules is still in its early stages. Interactions among different levels of evolution are far from being understood. It is argued in the paper that the evolution of learning rules and its interactions with other levels of evolution play a vital role in EANNs.

An assay for complement factor B in species at different levels of evolution

The alternative complement pathway is regarded as the evolutionary ancestral complement system. It is therefore of interest to analyze and characterize factor B of the alternative complement pathway in animals at different levels of evolution. We describe a functional assay which is based on the interaction of factor B from various animal species with Cobra Venom Factor, the snake C3b-analog. The signal system in the assay is C3-conversion in factor B-depleted chicken serum. The results show that a functional C3-convertase can be created with factor B from mammals, aves, and amphibians.

Identification and structural characterization of Lyt-1 glycoproteins from tunicate hemocytes and mouse thymocytes

1. 1. A panel of monoclonal antibodies specific to murine Lyt-1 allotypic and framework determinants was used to investigate the possible occurrence of a Lyt-1 homolog in tunicate (protochoradte) hemocytes. 2. 2. In immunoprecipitation experiments, antigenic activities were associated with a major 67 kDa component on tunicate hemocytes and C57B1/6 mouse thymocytes. 3. 3. Tunicate and mouse Lyt-1 molecules were compared, in terms of glycosylation, by their sensitivity to glycosidases and analyses on one- and two-dimensional gel electrophoresis. 4. 4. Each of the two molecules appeared to bear two N-linked oligosaccharides, one high-mannose and one complex-type glycan. 5. 5. Both molecules revealed charge microheterogeneity with differences in sialic acid content accounting for the charge difference between each other. 6. 6. However, the difference in the glycans did not account for the microheterogeneity within each molecule, suggesting that other post-translational modifications might be responsible. 7. 7. At the polypeptide level, comparisons of chymotryptic and endoproteinase-Arg-C peptide maps, as well as CNBr-cleavage products, suggested that tunicate and mouse Lyt-1 molecules are structurally similar and that each may contain at least one intra-chain disulfide bridge. 8. 8. The significance of these findings is discussed in terms of the possible biological role of Lyt-1 glycoproteins at different levels of evolution.

RACE project R1010 scenario for the implementation of coherent multichannel systems in the subscriber area of the European IBC network

A scenario which illustrates the use of coherent multi-channel (CMD) techniques in different levels of evolution of the European Integrated Broadband Communication (IBC) network is developed. The scenario is based on experimental results obtained by engineered laboratory setups on CMC and subscriber systems. A detailed comparison between the CMC solution and a direct detection approach is presented, and the different levels of evolution from direct detection to CMC techniques are illustrated.

A historical review of the problem of mitogenetic radiation.

The 'miracle of caryokinesis' was the starting point that stimulated Alexander G. Gurwitsch to carry out his famous 'mitogenetic' experiments in 1923. The results obtained confirmed his hypothesis of a weak radiation from cells, which is able to trigger the growth of other cells. Extensive experimental work within the first two decades after this discovery indicated that the problem of mitogenetic radiation is generally related to the biological significance of UV-radiation. Both 'energetic' and 'informational' aspects have to be considered, namely radiation effective in activating molecules, and that involved in arranging them into larger units. The molecular organization of biological structures is evidently governed by nonequilibrium conditions needing the uptake or emission of radiation. These concepts of A. G. Gurwitsch can be linked with modern approaches based on hypotheses of coherence in biology, 'synergetics' and 'dissipative structures'. However, the question of causal interrelationships between this part of non-equilibrium radiation and biological matter on different levels of evolution has to be solved now.

Evaluation and Choice of Information in the Control Systems

Some problems concerning the choice of information most useful for control in complex systems are considered. To decide what information should be transmitted between subsystems at different levels of evolution in the system some criteria for evaluation of information are proposed. A procedure for choosing information for optimization of stochastic automata system is put forward.