Different Kinds Of Memory Research Articles

The Role of Learning and Memory Paradigms in the Remediation of Aphasic Disorders

Traditional approaches to aphasia therapy in the last century have varied depending upon the theoretical assumptions underlying the therapy. These approaches include: reactivation of weakened representations, reorganization of function, reteaching of lost information, and functional compensation. In more recent years, there has been a move toward framing issues of rehabilitation within models of cognitive neuropsychology (Riddoch & Humphreys, 1994). This approach has proved quite useful in helping to focus remediation attempts at a more precise functional localization of the deficit and has clearly made a significant contribution to aphasia therapy. What we need to do in the next century is to go one step further, in focusing not on what needs to be fixed, but rather on what is the best procedure for fixing it. That is, we need to examine the role of the specific learning paradigm that is employed in aphasia therapy, independent of the nature of the deficit or the theoretical goal of the treatment. It may be useful to look to the current literature on learning and memory for help with this endeavor. The past two decades of this century have seen an explosion in the attention paid to different kinds of memory and learning. A new dichotomy of memory has become popular, based largely on research with amnesic patients. These patients perform poorly on memory tasks involving explicit (or, declarative) recognition or recall, i.e., the conscious recall or recognition of facts and events, including knowledge of explicit rules (‘‘i before e, except after c.’’) or procedures. However, it has been noted that new learning can be demonstrated in these amnesic patients on tasks of an implicit (or, nondeclarative) nature. In these tasks, the learning of new information is demonstrated by changes in performance. Such changes can take the form of in

Erinnern und Erzahlen. Studie zu Ingeborg Bachmanns Erzahlband Das dreiSSigste Jahr

Tolled Ursula Erinnern and Erzahlen. Studie zu Ingeborg Bachmanns Erzahlband Das dreilssigsteJahr. Berlin: Schmidt, 1998.165pp. DM 68.00 paperback The recent publication of a new and much expanded edition of Ingeborg Bachmann's writings has not failed to generate heated ideological debates about this author. These discussions further extend the discursive tensions that seem to always frame the reception and perception of this author and her work. After initially celebrating Bachmann's extraordinary poetic talent, critics soon turned to harshly criticizing her first prose publications; the Todesarten project was discovered and politically appropriated by feminist scholarship, scholars have reassessed her work in light of theoretical paradigms such as poststructuralism and post-colonialism. In fact, the most promising Bachmann scholarship today has reached a self reflexive turn and pauses to untangle both ideological appropriations and scandalous curiosity from rigorous literary analysis. At the same time, the new Bachmann edition documents a recent trend of focusing on various topographical and narrative connections within the oeuvre. In many ways, Toller's study belongs to that latter trend within Bachmann scholarship. Toller seeks to define succinct epistemological continuities within The Thirtieth Year, while also articulating thematic references between the early prose work and the later Todesarten project. According to Toller the function and effect of memory have never been analyzed consistently and as the common thematic and formal thread in The Thirtieth Year. Premised on the claim that memory surfaces as both Stilfigur and Sprachfigur, she argues that Bachmann's early prose is committed to a thorough epistemological critique of not only the autonomous subject but of the notion of subjectivity itself. Moreover, Bachmann's critical exploration of the tropes of memory and time are regarded as a rigorous deconstruction of the subject, which reflects the strain of writing after Auschwitz and thus anticipates the Todesarten project. For the most part, the thorough and methodical interpretations of each story are convincing and interesting. Among things, Toller discusses the importance of the Augenblick as the premise for a different kind of memory (Jugend), the constellation of Erwachen as the possibility of memory, the importance of the trace of the other (Das dreissigste Jahr), the return of the repressed ( Alles), the dialectic between victims and perpetrators (Unter Mordern and Irren), culturally petrified iconographies of femininity (Ein Schritt nach Gomorrah), the limits of truth and memory (Ein Wildermuth), and the Augenblick as a utopian moment (Undine geht). …

The search for cell assemblies in the working brain

This paper discusses why population ensemble coding by multiple neurons is a tenable view of the brain's basic neuronal code. The discussion is based on features of neuronal activity in working brains of behaving animals. The key concept to elucidate population ensemble coding is the `cell assembly', i.e. overlapped populations of neurons with flexible functional connections within and among the populations. Recent examples of experimental approaches which indicate the cell-assembly coding of memory in the working brain are given. These experiments used a strategy that reveals two main properties of cell assemblies; the overlapping of neurons and the dynamic changes of synaptic connections in processing different kinds of memory. Several possible features of cell-assembly coding that might be explored in future experimental research are enumerated.

Memory Performance and Socio-Economic Status

Memory ability is affected by the physical, educational and health environments. The nature of these environments, in turn, differs across people with different socio-economic status (SES). Thus, it would be expected that memory performance would vary systematically with SES. However, memory researchers have yet to examine the relationship between economic variables and memory performance. This paper reviews several literatures (medical, public health, IQ, sociological and memory) to assess the relationship—if any—of socio-economic status to memory performance. The results of the review revealed that memory performance is strongly and directly correlated with SES. However, the results were not strong enough to determine whether the extent of this relationship differs across different kinds of memory. These results suggest that memory researchers should investigate further the nature of the relationship between SES and memory performance and take account of the possible influence of SES in the design and interpretation of memory data. © 1997 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

One hundred years of forgetting: A quantitative description of retention.

A sample of 210 published data sets were assembled that (a) plotted amount remembered versus time, (b) had 5 or more points, and (cj were smooth enough to fit at least 1 of the functions tested with a correlation coefficient of .90 or greater. Each was fit to 105 different 2-parameter functions. The best fits were to the logarithmic function, the power function, the exponential in the square root of time, and the hyperbola in the square root of time. It is difficult to distinguish among these 4 functions with the available data, but the same set of 4 functions fit most data sets, with autobiographical memory being the exception. Theoretical motivations for the best fitting functions are offered. The methodological problems of evaluating functions and the advantages of searching existing data for regularities before formulating theories are considered. At the simplest level, this article is a search for regularities. We ask whether there is one retention function that can describe all of memory, or perhaps a different function for each of a small number of different kinds of memory. At a more abstract level, it is about the role of theory and data in psychological research. Can we most rapidly advance psychology as a science by developing theories at the level that commonly fills psychological journals such as this one, or should we first try to describe phenomena that could constrain theories by establishing robust, preferably quantitative, regularities (Rubin, 1985, 1989, 1995)? A balance between these alternatives is needed, and here we argue that to obtain such a balance more description is needed. Retention offers the ideal topic to make this abstract, philo

The structure of family perceptions among adolescents and their parents: individual satisfaction factors and family system factors.

This study examined the underlying structure of self-reports of family functioning by adolescents, mothers, and fathers (N of individuals = 360) from intact families. Participants completed a multidimensional self-report measure of family functioning, and their responses were entered into a factor analysis with the family as the unit of analysis (N of cases = 120). The results indicate two types of factors: individual satisfaction factors and family system factors. The findings are consistent with the view that different types of characteristics assessed in self-report measures of the family may be stored as different kinds of memories. The findings also provide preliminary data toward understanding the linkages between family system factors and satisfaction with the family based on family roles as adolescents, mothers, and fathers.

Memory dynamics and foraging strategies of honeybees

The foraging behavior of a single bee in a patch of four electronic flower dummies (feeders) was studied with the aim of analyzing the informational components in the choice process. In different experimental combinations of reward rates, color marks, odors and distances of the feeders, the behavior of the test bee was monitored by a computer in real time by several devices installed in each feeder. The test bee optimizes by partially matching its choice behavior to the reward rates of the feeders. The matching behavior differs strongly between “stay” flights (the bee chooses the feeder just visited) and “shift” flights (the bee chooses one of the three alternative feeders). The probability of stay and shift flights depends on the reward sequence and on the time interval between successive visits. Since functions describing the rising probability of stay flights with rising amounts of sucrose solution just experienced differ for the four feeders, it is concluded that bees develop feeder-specific memories. The choice profiles of shift flights between the three alternative feeders depend on the mean reward rate of the feeder last visited. Good matching is found after visits to the low-reward feeders and poor matching following departure from the high-reward feeders. These results indicate that bees use two different kinds of memories to guide their choice behavior: a transient short-term working memory that is not feeder-specific, and a feeder-specific long-term reference memory. Model calculations were carried out to test this hypothesis. The model was based on a learning rule (the difference rule) developed by Rescorla and Wagner (1972), which was extended to the two forms of memories to predict this operant behavior. The experiments show that a foraging honeybee learns the properties of a food source (its signals and rewards) so effectively that specific expectations guide the choice behavior.

Behavioral Models of Memory and Amnesia

In modelling memory and amnesia, the different forms of cognition must be distinguished. For memory, distinctions between acquisition, storage, and retrieval must be made and the different kinds of memory (e.g., immediate, working, reference) identified. Other notions, such as attention, orientation, and vigilance also belong under the heading "cognition". Thus the term "cognition enhancer" is imprecise because it does not indicate which kind of cognition is to be enhanced. Animal models should be developed for each type of cognition, be based on information from the clinic, and attempt to be specific. Examples of models more specific than the passive avoidance test were discussed and included the radial maze, in which different kinds of memory could be analyzed and correlated with, for example, changes in central cholinergic activity. From the point of view of drug development an important distinction was made between "empirical" and "simulation" models. In other areas of psychopharmacology "empirical" models have been widely used because they show predictable responses to known reference compounds. In the field of cognition there are no generally recognized reference compounds and therefore no "empirical" models. There is therefore a need for "simulation" models which imitate the various aspects of cognition and its pathology. The major criterion for validating this kind of model is that it should show changes similar to those observed in humans either resulting from a particular pathology or from a particular drug treatment.

Memory models and the measurement of listening

Although most persons consider listening an essential communication skill, research in listening has not attracted the attention paid to other communication skills. Part of this neglect is due to definitions of listening, and part is due to some of the problems inherent in measuring listening. So‐called “standard”; methods of measuring listening have been shown to be completely confounded with traditional tests of intelligence. Since memory seems to be a vital part of definitions of listening it might serve as a basis for a new approach to measurement. Memory research indicates that short‐term, short‐term with rehearsal, and long‐term memories are all distinct. Listening tasks were devised which should utilize these three different kinds of memory and were found to be different from one another. To achieve a “comprehensive”; measure of listening, tasks requiring interpretation and concentration were added. All of these tasks were presented on audiotape. The varying subscales were found to be internally re...

Wątki moralne u Prousta

The essay deals with moral problems in Proust’s A la recherche du temps perdu. The novel has been viewed by many as a survey of the ruling customs, as an outstanding psychological novel, as a study of human characters, and as a story of the decline of aristocracy. The description of facts has been noted in this way, but not the underlying idea. This essay shows Proust not only as an etologist (in this respect his importance is not controversial), but also as a moralist. The essay consists of three parts. The first one deals with Proust’s views connected with the theory of knowledge to be found in the novel. Special emphasis is put on the influence both of the atmosphere of his home and that of his time on the formation of Proust’s views, as his point of departure was the positivistic method as well as scientific and naturalistic approach to all events. Further, it should be stressed – and this has escaped many readers for a long time – that having applied his method Proust arrived at general conclusions which have proved to be in a sheer contradiction with this method. No writer of fiction before him has pointed out the importance of subjective factors in cognition better than he did. In defiance of positivism, Proust denies neither the existence of the essence of things nor of qualitative differences. Considerations relating to Proust’s analysis of the phenomenon of remembering and of different kinds of memory (with particular stress on analogous memory) show how important they were for fixing his views on the insufficiency and inadequacy of intellectual cognition as well as on discovering its falsifications, simplifications and utilitarian character. Both the world of common experience and common sense and that of science are worlds of delusion. These conceptions show a striking coincidence with those of Bergson.

System Organization of a Multiple-Cockpit Digital Operational Flight Trainer

This paper describes the system organization of a digital computer whose purpose is to activate simultaneously more than one cockpit of an operational flight trainer. The simulated aircraft are assumed to be all of the same type, but each is simulated independently. The computer is drum-sequenced and represents an application of the theory of multiple computers, since there are several different kinds of memories and more than one arithmetic unit in the system.

The Development of Memory in Children [Experimentelle Untersuchungen über die Gedachtnissentwickelung bei Schülkindern]. (Zeits. f. Psych., Bd. xxvii, H. 1 and 2, 1901.) Lobsien. Marx.

These experiments were made on 238 boys and 224 girls, between the ages of 9 and 14, in the schools at Kiel. Eight different kinds of memory were investigated, involving in each group a test of the ability to remember in exact order nine sensory impressions (nine objects exhibited in succession, nine figures repeated, nine names of visual objects repeated, nine names of states of feeling, nine difficult unknown words, etc.). Among the boys the average order of excellence reached was as follows (in decreasing values): real things, figures, words referring to touch, visual words, words representing sounds, actual sounds, words referring to feelings, difficult words. In every group (except that of objects exhibited) there was a regular improvement with age. In regard to objects seen, sounds heard, and representations of feeling, there was a marked improvement in memory about the thirteenth year. The memory for figures, and for sound-words, touch-words, and feeling-words, showed most rapid development at an earlier age (ten to eleven years). There was no tendency to a simultaneous development in all the groups; mental energy seemed to be concentrated on one group at a time.

The Development of Memory in Children [Experimentelle Untersuchungen über die Gedachtnissentwickelung bei Schülkindern]. (Zeits. f. Psych., Bd. xxvii, H. 1 and 2, 1901.) Lobsien. Marx

These experiments were made on 238 boys and 224 girls, between the ages of 9 and 14, in the schools at Kiel. Eight different kinds of memory were investigated, involving in each group a test of the ability to remember in exact order nine sensory impressions (nine objects exhibited in succession, nine figures repeated, nine names of visual objects repeated, nine names of states of feeling, nine difficult unknown words, etc.). Among the boys the average order of excellence reached was as follows (in decreasing values): real things, figures, words referring to touch, visual words, words representing sounds, actual sounds, words referring to feelings, difficult words. In every group (except that of objects exhibited) there was a regular improvement with age. In regard to objects seen, sounds heard, and representations of feeling, there was a marked improvement in memory about the thirteenth year. The memory for figures, and for sound-words, touch-words, and feeling-words, showed most rapid development at an earlier age (ten to eleven years). There was no tendency to a simultaneous development in all the groups; mental energy seemed to be concentrated on one group at a time.