Sex-role Differences Research Articles

The dress and commercial image of the American ‘Fat Lady’, 1850–1920

In this article, I analyse the genre of ‘Fat Lady’ photographs popular between the mid-nineteenth and mid-twentieth centuries. I assert that there is an archetypal appearance that developed in the 1860s and was standardized by the 1880s, consisting of certain dress, grooming and posing practices that emphasized their subjects’ sizes and presumed social status. Fatness was a performance that these women were employed to embody – one that straddled the lines between corporeal deviance and normality. Freak shows reveal cultural anxieties about bodies. The way Fat Lady performers were costumed reflected concerns about fatness taking up too much space and visibility as well as fatness rendering people immature and androgynous, thereby challenging established sex-role differences; it also revealed the potential erotic allure of extreme body size. Over a century of popularity, Fat Lady performers came to rely on costumes inspired by evening dress, childrenswear and then lingerie, all of which grew scantier as time progressed. Existing cartes de visite, cabinet cards, posters, advertisements, reports from journalists and side show insiders, and rare interviews with the performers themselves provide material for close analysis.

Female and male body condition in the Whiskered Tern Chlidonias hybrida, a species with female offspring desertion: a test of the differential parental capacity hypothesis

AbstractOffspring desertion by a single parent, mainly the female, occurs in many charadriiform birds. According to the differential parental capacity hypothesis (DPCH), females are more likely to desert, since they may be in poorer body condition than males as a consequence of egg-laying costs. This study investigated the body condition of 122 male and 118 female Whiskered Terns. In this species half of females desert during the chick-rearing period, the remainder during the post-fledging period. Body condition was investigated during the late incubation and early chick-rearing phases during the biparental care period in: (1) females that deserted during the chick-rearing period, (2) females that did not desert during this time, (3) males deserted by females, and (4) males not deserted by females. Among females that stayed, body condition during the pre-hatching period did not vary with relative catching date (clutch/brood age), whereas females that later deserted showed a very poor body condition when caught around seven days prior to hatching. After hatching, body condition was lower in both deserting and non-deserting females caught later. Among males whose females stayed, body condition remained nearly stable, whereas the body condition of males whose females deserted was lower the later they were caught. These results tally only partially with the DPCH: the pattern of parental body condition changes during breeding is apparently more complex than assumed by the DPCH and the cost of egg laying may be lower than suggested. Desertion by Whiskered Tern females is better explained by the sex role differences in parental care. The male’s ability to compensate for the missing female may be playing a role in the evolution of desertion.

Buffering masculinity’s impact on binge drinking: the femininity effect

Background Across most developmental periods, males tend to drink at a higher frequency and at a higher intensity than females. In identifying the mechanism responsible for these differences, biological factors have been a prevalent focus; however, gender expression is also highlighted. The purpose of this paper is to decipher how differences in binge drinking are attributed to sex differences and gendered traits. Method Using data from Wave III of the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health (ADD Health) (n = 8,882), we conducted a multiple group moderation analysis to examine how differences in biological sex and gender roles in emerging adulthood predicted binge drinking. Results We found that binge drinking in emerging adulthood was most strongly predicted by high levels of masculinity and low levels of femininity in emerging adulthood. As masculinity decreased, alcohol use decreased. Femininity significantly moderated masculinity’s association with binge drinking, primarily when masculinity was high, and this did not vary across sex after controlling for gender roles. Conclusions Our findings expand sex and gender research surrounding alcohol use. For both males and females, the higher the masculinity the more frequent alcohol use, an effect of which was buffered by higher levels of femininity. Clinicians should take into consideration gender role ascription of their clients when determining the risk profile during assessment.

Sex and gender role differences on stress, depression, and anxiety symptoms in response to the COVID-19 pandemic over time.

Stress, depression, and anxiety symptoms have been reported during the pandemic, with important inter-individual differences. Past cross-sectional studies have found that sex and gender roles may contribute to the modulation of one's vulnerability to develop such symptoms. This longitudinal study aimed to examine the interaction of sex and psychological gender roles on stress, depression, and anxiety symptoms in adults during the COVID-19 pandemic. Following the confinement measures in March 2020 in Montreal, stress, depression, and anxiety symptoms were assessed every 3 months (from June 2020 to March 2021) with the Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scale among 103 females and 50 males. Femininity and masculinity scores were assessed with the Bem Sex Role Inventory before the pandemic and were added as predictors along with time, sex, and the interactions between these variables using linear mixed models. We observed similar levels of depressive symptoms between males and females, but higher levels of stress and anxious symptoms in females. No effects of sex and gender roles on depressive symptoms were found. For stress and anxiety, an interaction between time, femininity, and sex was found. At the beginning of the pandemic, females with high femininity had more stress symptoms than males with high femininity, whereas females with low femininity had more anxiety symptoms 1 year after the confinement measures compared to males with low femininity. These findings suggest that sex differences and psychological gender roles contribute to heterogeneous patterns of stress and anxiety symptoms over time in response to the COVID-19 pandemic.

Gender Differences in Self-Estimated Intelligence: Exploring the Male Hubris, Female Humility Problem.

Despite evidence from cognitive psychology that men and women are equal in measured intelligence, gender differences in self-estimated intelligence (SEI) are widely reported with males providing systematically higher estimates than females. This has been termed the male hubris, female humility effect. The present study explored personality factors that might explain this. Participants (N = 228; 103 male, 125 female) provided self-estimates of their general IQ and for Gardner’s multiple intelligences, before completing the Cattell Culture Fair IQ test as an objective measure of intelligence. They also completed the Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI) as a measure of sex-role identification, and measures of general and academic self-esteem. Both gender and sex-role differences were observed for SEI, with males and participants of both genders who scored high in masculinity offering higher self-estimates. By comparing estimated and observed IQ, we were able to rule out gender differences in overall accuracy but observed a pattern of systematic underestimation in females. An hierarchical multiple regression showed significant independent effects of gender, masculinity, and self-esteem. Mixed evidence was observed for gender differences in the estimation of multiple intelligences, though moderately sized sex-role differences were observed. The results offer a far more nuanced explanation for the male hubris, female humility effect that includes the contribution of sex role identification to individual and group differences.

Sex Role Reversal and High Frequency of Social Polyandry in the Pheasant-Tailed Jacana (Hydrophasianus chirurgus)

In a few species, males invest more than females in parental care while the females invest in mating competition and producing multiple broods for several mates. Species in the family Jacanidae are commonly used for studying this type of breeding system (called sex-role reversal), and previous studies found discrepancies and variation between species in the expected characteristics of reversed sex roles. Yet, a better understanding of sex role differences in breeding behavior in such species is crucial for disentangling possible evolutionary mechanisms leading to this peculiar breeding system. Sex-role reversal in the pheasant-tailed jacana Hydrophasianus chirurgus has been documented long time ago. Since the very early observation of this species, however, there was no attempt to provide a comprehensive and quantitative description of their breeding. This study aims to fill these knowledge gaps by investigating the sex role differences in the breeding behavior of pheasant-tailed jacanas, by observing and monitoring a breeding population in Taiwan. We focused on three main characteristics of sex-role reversal: (1) competition between females for access to males, such as agonistic and courtship behaviors, (2) polyandrous mating, and (3) male-only care. As expected, we found that females provide most of the territory defense toward conspecifics. Males also participated in agonistic behaviors, although less frequently than females. Furthermore, contrary to what was expected, we found that males spent more time than females on courtship behavior. Polyandrous females performed mating and laying sequentially with different mates but maintained the pair bonds simultaneously with multiple males. For the first time for the species, we could estimate that the average number of mates per female (i.e., degree of polyandry) was 2.4 and that at least 81.8% of the females in the population were polyandrous. Finally, our observations corroborated that brood care is predominantly provided by males, nevertheless females were also participating to some degree in brood attendance but never in direct care (i.e., brooding). This study highlights that some aspects of polyandrous breeding might deviate from stereotyped view on sex-role reversal, and stress the importance of further within species and comparative studies in order to fully understand the mechanisms leading to sex-role reversal.

Habitat selection in the lesser cuckoo, an avian brood parasite breeding on Jeju Island, Korea

BackgroundDetermining patterns of habitat use is key to understanding of animal ecology. Approximately 1% of bird species use brood parasitism for their breeding strategy, in which they exploit other species’ (hosts) parental care by laying eggs in their nests. Brood parasitism may complicate the habitat requirement of brood parasites because they need habitats that support both their host and their own conditions for breeding. Brood parasitism, through changes in reproductive roles of sex or individual, may further diversify habitat use patterns among individuals. However, patterns of habitat use in avian brood parasites have rarely been characterized. In this study, we categorized the habitat preference of a population of brood parasitic lesser cuckoos (Cuculus poliocephalus) breeding on Jeju Island, Korea. By using compositional analyses together with radio-tracking and land cover data, we determined patterns of habitat use and their sexual and diurnal differences.ResultsWe found that the lesser cuckoo had a relatively large home range and its overall habitat composition (the second-order selection) was similar to those of the study area; open areas such as the field and grassland habitats accounted for 80% of the home range. Nonetheless, their habitat, comprised of 2.54 different habitats per hectare, could be characterized as a mosaic. We also found sexual differences in habitat composition and selection in the core-use area of home ranges (third-order selection). In particular, the forest habitat was preferentially utilized by females, while underutilized by males. However, there was no diurnal change in the pattern of habitat use. Both sexes preferred field habitats at the second-order selection. At the third-order selection, males preferred field habitats followed by grasslands and females preferred grasslands followed by forest habitats.ConclusionsWe suggest that the field and grassland habitats represent the two most important areas for the lesser cuckoo on Jeju Island. Nevertheless, this study shows that habitat preference may differ between sexes, likely due to differences in sex roles, sex-based energy demands, and potential sexual conflict.

Sex and Gender Role Differences in Occupational Exposures and Work Outcomes Among Registered Nurses in Correctional Settings.

The correctional environment exposes registered nurses to unique occupational health hazards including, but not limited to, an increased risk for workplace violence. Gender role expectations regarding femininity and masculinity may influence occupational exposures and outcomes differently. Risk comparisons between male and female registered nurses working in correctional settings, have been minimally examined. With the proportion of male registered nurses working in corrections higher than that of nurses working in other healthcare sectors, and with the increasing number of males entering the nursing workforce in general, it is important to characterize and understand occupational exposures and outcomes of male and female registered nurses, especially those working in correctional settings. This paper aims to describe and compare sex and gender role differences in occupational exposures and work outcomes among correctional registered nurses. A cross-sectional web-based survey using Qualtrics was administered to registered nurses working in a northeastern correctional healthcare system between June and October 2016. The survey was composed of 71 items from the CPH-NEW Healthy Workplace All Employee Survey, Assessing Risk of Exposure to Blood and Airborne Pathogens and General Health Survey, Bem Sex Role Inventory-Short Form (BSRI-SF), and the Negative Acts Questionnaire-Revised. Of 95 registered nurse participants, 75% were female with the highest percentage identified as belonging to the feminine group (37%), while the highest percentage of male participants were identified as belonging to the androgynous group (33%). Females worked primarily on the first shift, while males tended to work the second and third shifts (P < 0.05). Over one third of all participants (37%) reported having experienced a sharps-related injury and having been exposed to blood-borne pathogens and body fluids within the previous 2-5 years. The majority of the participants (>95%) reported being at risk for workplace violence and having been victims of workplace violence perpetrated by an inmate. Significant gender differences (P < 0.0001) were noted in the bullying exposure with androgynous nurses having higher occasional bullying. There was a marginal difference in burnout for females (M = 6.8, SD = 2.1) and males (M = 5.8, SD = 1.9, P = 0.05). Effective interventions are needed to address the sex and gender role-based differences in bullying exposure and burnout in order to promote the overall health and well-being of correctional registered nurses.

Handedness is a biomarker of variation in anal sex role behavior and Recalled Childhood Gender Nonconformity among gay men.

Developmental theories of the biological basis of sexual orientation suggest that sexually differentiated psychological and behavioural traits should be linked with sexual orientation. Subgroups of gay men delineated by anal sex roles differ according to at least one such trait: gender expression. The present study assessed the hypothesis that handedness, a biologically determined sexually differentiated trait, corresponds to differences in subgroups of gay men based on anal sex role. Furthermore, it assessed whether handedness mediates the association between gender nonconformity and male sexual orientation. Straight and gay men (N = 333) completed the Edinburgh Inventory of Handedness and the Recalled Childhood Gender Nonconformity Scale. Gay men also completed measures of anal sex role preference. As in previous studies, gay men showed greater non-right-handedness and gender nonconformity than straight men. Also, among gay men, bottoms/versatiles (i.e., gay men who take a receptive anal sex role, or who take on both a receptive and insertive anal sex role) were more gender-nonconforming than tops (i.e., gay men who take an insertive anal sex role). In support of the hypothesis, bottoms/versatiles were more non-right-handed than tops and handedness mediated the male sexual orientation and anal sex role differences in Recalled Childhood Gender Nonconformity. Together, these findings suggest that developmental processes linked to handedness underpin variation among men in sexual orientation and gender nonconformity as well as variation among subgroups of gay men that are delineated by anal sex roles.

Sex and sex-role differences in specific cognitive abilities

Sex differences in cognitive abilities are a controversial but actively researched topic. The present study examined whether sex-role identity mediates the relationship between sex and sex-typed cognitive abilities. Three hundred nine participants (105 males and 204 females) were tested on a range of visuospatial and language tasks under laboratory conditions. Participants also completed measures of sex-role identity, used to classify them into masculine, feminine, androgynous and undifferentiated groups. While sex differences were found for some but not all measures, significant sex-role differences were found for all spatial and language measures with the exception of a novel 2D Mental Rotation Task. Masculine sex-roles partially mediated the relationship between sex and a composite measure of spatial ability, while feminine sex-roles fully mediated the relationship between sex and a composite measure of language ability. These results suggest that sex-role identity may have greater utility in explaining individual differences in cognitive performance than biological sex alone.

Impact of Sex Role Differences Upon The Frame of Reference: of Male and Female Residential Real Estate Salespeople in Their Evaluation of Career Opportunities

AbstractThe influence of sex-role stereotyping upon employee performances for job rewards has been researched in great depth. Little work has been done with men and women in a commissioned sales field. This study examines the influence of sex-role stereotyping upon the communication frame of reference and upon the evaluation of a career opportunity through two new hypotheses. Evidence was found that a sex-role identity and stereotyping can influence the frame of reference and the quality of information about a career.

Elevated mortality among birds in Chernobyl as judged from skewed age and sex ratios.

BackgroundRadiation has negative effects on survival of animals including humans, although the generality of this claim is poorly documented under low-dose field conditions. Because females may suffer disproportionately from the effects of radiation on survival due to differences in sex roles during reproduction, radiation-induced mortality may result in male-skewed adult sex ratios.Methodology/Principal FindingWe estimated the effects of low-dose radiation on adult survival rates in birds by determining age ratios of adults captured in mist nets during the breeding season in relation to background radiation levels around Chernobyl and in nearby uncontaminated control areas. Age ratios were skewed towards yearlings, especially in the most contaminated areas, implying that adult survival rates were reduced in contaminated areas, and that populations in such areas could only be maintained through immigration from nearby uncontaminated areas. Differential mortality in females resulted in a strongly male-skewed sex ratio in the most contaminated areas. In addition, males sang disproportionately commonly in the most contaminated areas where the sex ratio was male skewed presumably because males had difficulty finding and acquiring mates when females were rare. The results were not caused by permanent emigration by females from the most contaminated areas because none of the recaptured birds had changed breeding site, and the proportion of individuals with morphological abnormalities did not differ significantly between the sexes for areas with normal and higher levels of contamination.Conclusions/SignificanceThese findings are consistent with the hypothesis that the adult survival rate of female birds is particularly susceptible to the effects of low-dose radiation, resulting in male skewed sex ratios at high levels of radiation. Such skewed age ratios towards yearlings in contaminated areas are consistent with the hypothesis that an area exceeding 30,000 km2 in Chernobyl’s surroundings constitutes an ecological trap that causes dramatic excess mortality.

Gender Stereotyping in Television Commercials Aimed at Children in India

The study tries (a) to identify the nature of representation of boys and girls and their association with activities and products in three categories viz., boys only, girls only and girls and boys in television commercials, (b) to analyse whether there are sex-role differences in the representation of girls and boys in television commercials aimed specifically at children, (c) to examine the features of the television commercial content designed for children as to whether it is gender-stereotypical in nature and (d) whether children understand the gendered nature of commercial content and measure the level of their understanding of the same. This is a descriptive study. This study was embarked upon to contribute to an understanding of how gender is portrayed in television commercials aimed at children and whether it is stereotyped. The study is based on Social Learning Theory and Cultivation Analysis. The findings proved that television commercials are gender stereotyped.

Women and the smoking epidemic: turning the tide

Women and the smoking epidemic: turning the tide

Sex‐related variation in migration phenology in relation to sexual dimorphism: a test of competing hypotheses for the evolution of protandry

Timing of arrival/emergence to the breeding grounds is under contrasting natural and sexual selection pressures. Because of differences in sex roles and physiology, the balance between these pressures on either sex may differ, leading to earlier male (protandry) or female (protogyny) arrival. We test several competing hypotheses for the evolution of protandry using migration data for 22 bird species, including for the first time several monochromatic ones where sexual selection is supposedly less intense. Across species, protandry positively covaried with sexual size dimorphism but not with dichromatism. Within species, there was weak evidence that males migrate earlier because, being larger, they are less susceptible to adverse conditions. Our results do not support the 'rank advantage' and the 'differential susceptibility' hypotheses, nor the 'mate opportunity' hypothesis, which predicts covariation of protandry with dichromatism. Conversely, they are compatible with 'mate choice' arguments, whereby females use condition-dependent arrival date to assess mate quality.

International medical school graduates in American medicine: is there the “dark side of the moon”?

International medical school graduates in American medicine: is there the “dark side of the moon”?

Sex roles and marital adjustment in Indian couples.

Marital theorists suggest a link between sex role differences and close relationships for men and women. Marriage is often a context for the activation and expression of sex roles. As marital adjustment is influenced by complementarity of roles between husband and wife, the same could hold true for sex roles as well. To study the relationship between sex roles and marital adjustment in Indian couples. The sample consisted of 20 distressed and 20 non-distressed couples from a marital and family therapy centre in the city of Bangalore, India. The measures used included a sociodemographic data sheet, the Dyadic Adjustment Scale, the Bem Sex Role Inventory and a semi-structured interview schedule for gendered experiences. Means, percentages and ANOVAS were used to analyse statistically the data. Content analysis was applied on material from the semi-structured interview schedule. The study revealed that: (a) the group as a whole showed greater femininity than masculinity; (b) more non-distressed individuals show high androgyny; (c) androgynous dyads show better marital adjustment; and (d) qualitative analysis suggests a trend for couples to move towards more gender-neutral constructions of marriage. The results indicate a link between androgyny and marital adjustment. The results also suggest the type of match between dyads.

Feminism in Transition: Chinese Culture, Ideology and the Development of the Women's Movement in China

This study is concerned with transitional gender roles and relations, illuminated through an examination of the status of women in China from the Mao era to the post-Mao era. The study reveals that the socialist state has maintained a high degree of control over gender construction in order to legitimise its historical achievement of revolution and liberation, assuming given gender identities within the official discourse of socialism. Liberation meant creating a fundamentally new and more democratic socialism within a male hegemony. This is derived from the core philosophy Confucianism in which human role relations are cultivated and developed within a male-centred world. Consequently, this discourse opens up an authoritative normalisation process that hinders women's progress in the state, in the household and in organisations. Women's new identity involves aspects of biologically given features, internalisation of the patriarchal family and social relations. Collective relational construction therefore emphasises the feminine/maternal principles of identity, denouncing separation and independence. This phenomenon seems to be pushing the whole of gender politics in China back towards more traditional sex role differences and power imbalances.

Sex and gender role differences in anger: an Australian community study

Anger is a commonly experienced emotion popularly thought to differ for men and women. Studies have produced conflicting evidence for sex differences on measures of anger often due to definitional confusion, methodological limitations, the use of non-random samples and the use of student and clinical populations. Some previous studies have suggested that males and females do not differ in measures of anger and that gender role identification may be more predictive of patterns of anger experience and expression. This study aimed to investigate the influence of sex, gender role identification and sex of the target of anger on measures of state and trait anger in a community sample of the Australian population. Results supported the prediction that gender role identification rather than sex were related to anger experience, expression and control, with this finding being consistent across two situational contexts. Sex of the target of anger was found to provide a weak contextual influence on male and female expression of anger. The implications of these findings for future research and for those working with anger in clinical settings are discussed.

Sex Role Portrayals in Turkish Television Advertisements: An Examination in an International Context

ABSTRACT This study compares Turkish advertisements with advertisements in the United States, Mexico, and Australia using Hofstede's masculinity index to predict sex-role portrayals of men and women as well as gender-specific themes depicted in advertisements. In a manner consistent with Hofstede's well known taxonomy, sex role differences between men and women in the context of themes such as productivity are found in masculine countries of the U.S., Australia, and Mexico while in the feminine country of Turkey sex-role differences between men and women are minimal and feminine values of relationship orientation are more often depicted. Practical implications of these findings for the international marketer are discussed.