Differences In Nutritional Content Research Articles

TECHNO-FUNCTIONAL PROPERTIES OF FLOUR, STARCH, AND PROTEINS OF PEA SEED (Pisum sativum L.) CULTIVATED IN THE MIXTECA REGION OF OAXACA

Currently, the food industry is interested in using plant-based ingredients because they can improve the nutritional and technological properties of products while also providing health benefits. The application of these ingredients in food formulations is dependent on their techno-functional properties, so determining them is critical. Pea seeds (Pisum sativum L.) are a good source of nutrients such as starch, protein, and fiber, which could also be used as functional food ingredients. It has been reported that differences in nutritional content and functional properties of pea seeds are caused by environmental conditions, cultivation methods, and processing. In Mexico, in the Mixteca Alta region of Oaxaca, creole peas are cultivated using rainfed agriculture, and the seeds are harvested when the plant is completely dry. There are currently no studies that evaluate the composition and properties of the main components of pea seeds grown under the environmental conditions of this region. The objective of this work was to determine the proximal composition and techno-functional properties of flour (PF), starch (PS), and protein (PPI) isolated from dry creole seeds cultivated in the Mixteca Alta region of Oaxaca. Results were compared using ANOVA and Tukey’s test (p ≤ 0.05). Significant differences (p ≤ 0.05) were found in the proximal composition and the color of PF, PS, and PPI. The extracted starch contains 19.6 ± 1.3 % amylose. The granules were ellipsoidal in shape and measured 57.2 ± 11.0 mm in diameter. The FTIR spectra showed structural differences between the samples. Functional properties such as water absorption capacity, foam formation, and emulsifying capacity were significantly higher in PPI than in PF and PS (p ≤ 0.05). The results demonstrate that pea seeds grown in the Mixteca Alta region of Oaxaca can be an unconventional source of functional ingredients for the food industry.

A Comparative Analysis of the Nutritional Quality of Salmon Species in Canada among Different Production Methods and Regions

Nutritional information of fresh seafood, including salmon, is not commonly available to the public, which can lead to misconceptions. The aim of this study was to determine the nutritional content of salmon fillets, comparing: (1) Canadian salmon, both wild (pink, chinook, and sockeye) and farmed (Atlantic salmon); (2) Canadian farmed Atlantic salmon grown in ocean net pens or land-based recirculating aquaculture systems (RAS); and (3) farmed Atlantic salmon raised in Canada compared with Scotland, Chile, and Ireland. Samples were purchased from retail stores in Canada and analyzed for moisture, crude protein, total lipid, fatty acids, amino acids, cholesterol, mercury, and color. The greatest differences in nutritional content were between species, rather than if it was wild or farmed. Compared to salmon raised in net pens, salmon raised in RAS had three times more eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) + docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) per serving (0.7/100 g vs. 2.3/100 g, respectively), twice as much omega-3s (14% vs. 30%) and redder in color (24.7 vs. 30.1) but higher in saturated fats (18% vs. 24%). Scottish salmon had over double the amount of EPA + DHA per 100 g (1.6 g) than salmon from Canada (0.70 g), Chile (0.66 g), and Ireland (0.61 g). While nutritional content differed among salmon types, each type can provide dietary essential nutrients that can benefit consumers.

Evaluation of Nutritional Content of Beef Rendang Using Wet and Dry Seasonings

Beef rendang is a traditional West Sumatra dish made from beef cooked with coconut milk and seasoning. Seasoning has an important role, to give a distinctive flavor for beef rendang. It can be processed using wet and dry seasoning. This research is an experiment by conducting a direct experiment of making beef rendang using wet and dry seasoning. Then the proximate test was carried out to determine the nutritional content in beef rendang. The object of this research is the nutritional value of beef rendang using wet and dry seasoning including fat, air, ash, protein and carbohydrates. Fat content in the two beef rendang shows a difference, rendang using wet seasoning has more fat content than meat rendang using dry seasoning. The water content in beef rendang using wet seasoning is lower (16.36%) than dry seasonings (17.57). Ash content is not that different. The higher protein and carbohydrate content was found in dry seasoning with the value of protein content (29.88%) and carbohydrate content (29.28%). The cooking time of beef rendang has an effect on nutritional value. The faster the cooking time, the more nutritional value that can be preserved. Beef rendang using wet and dry seasoning cooked at the same time has different nutritional values. More fat and water levels are found in beef rendang using wet seasoning. Meanwhile, the ash, protein and carbohydrate content of rendang using dry seasoning has a higher value. The results revealed that there were differences in nutritional content between beef rendang using dry seasoning and wet seasoning. The nutritional content of beef rendang using dry seasoning is better than fat, ash, protein, and carbohydrates.

The Importance of Time and Place: Nutrient Composition and Utilization of Seasonal Pollens by European Honey Bees (Apis mellifera L.).

Simple SummaryHoney bees rely on pollen and nectar to provide nutrients to support their yearly colony cycle. Specifics of the cycle differ among geographic regions as do the species of flowering plants and the nutrients they provide. We examined responses of honey bees from two different queen lines fed pollens from locations that differed in floral species composition and yearly colony cycles. We detected differences between the queen lines in the amount of pollen they consumed and the size of their hypopharyngeal glands (HPG). There were also seasonal differences between the nutrient composition of pollens. Spring pollens collected from colonies in both locations had higher amino and fatty acid concentrations than fall pollens. There also were seasonal differences in responses to the pollens consumed by bees from both queen lines. Bees consumed more spring than fall pollen, but digested less of it so that bees consumed more protein from fall pollens. Though protein consumption was higher with fall pollen, HPG were larger in spring bees.Honey bee colonies have a yearly cycle that is supported nutritionally by the seasonal progression of flowering plants. In the spring, colonies grow by rearing brood, but in the fall, brood rearing declines in preparation for overwintering. Depending on where colonies are located, the yearly cycle can differ especially in overwintering activities. In temperate climates of Europe and North America, colonies reduce or end brood rearing in the fall while in warmer climates bees can rear brood and forage throughout the year. To test the hypothesis that nutrients available in seasonal pollens and honey bee responses to them can differ we analyzed pollen in the spring and fall collected by colonies in environments where brood rearing either stops in the fall (Iowa) or continues through the winter (Arizona). We fed both types of pollen to worker offspring of queens that emerged and open mated in each type of environment. We measured physiological responses to test if they differed depending on the location and season when the pollen was collected and the queen line of the workers that consumed it. Specifically, we measured pollen and protein consumption, gene expression levels (hex 70, hex 110, and vg) and hypopharyngeal gland (HPG) development. We found differences in macronutrient content and amino and fatty acids between spring and fall pollens from the same location and differences in nutrient content between locations during the same season. We also detected queen type and seasonal effects in HPG size and differences in gene expression between bees consuming spring vs. fall pollen with larger HPG and higher gene expression levels in those consuming spring pollen. The effects might have emerged from the seasonal differences in nutritional content of the pollens and genetic factors associated with the queen lines we used.

Peluang tanaman Suweg/Maek (Amorphophallus paeoniifolius Dennst) dan Porang/Maek Bako (Amorphophallus muelleri) sebagai komoditas ekonomi dan pangan lokal di Kabupaten Belu

This study aimed to assess opportunities of local food Suweg/Maek and Porang/Maek Bako as potential economic commodities by providing a systematic understanding of their species distribution, showing their similarities and differences in nutritional content, and analyzing their impact on local economic context. A descriptive analysis was performed while applying small scale laboratory analysis. Direct observation and interview were applied to collect data through a period of survey. A total of 80 respondents (10 respondents of each sub-district) were recruited using snowball sampling technique in South Lamaknen, Lamaknen, Lasiolat, Nanae Dua Besi, Raimanuk, Raihat, West Tasifeto, and East Tasifeto. The primary data were collected by interviewing key respondents and secondary data were obtained from related agencies and records. Data were collected, coded, and tabulated accordingly. Then analyzed in both qualitative and quantitative aspects including plants morphology, Global Positioning System (GPS) analysis and distribution, production analysis (cost analysis, local food consumption patterns). The findings were discussed in terms of their impact as potential commodities. The results show that Maek and Maek Bako have potential economic benefits, good nutritional content for local fresh food and alternatives, and valuable for food planning. It is essential that Belu Government should support their (unused) potential with adequate financial support, technology diffusion, and enhancing public private collaboration to increase the plants productivity.

Nutritional, chemical and molecular characterisation of Moringa oleifera Lam. and Moringa peregrina (Forssk.) Fiori genotypes

ABSTRACTThis work aimed to characterise Moringa oleifera (Mo) and Moringa peregrina (Mp), grown in Saudi Arabia, based on nutritional and molecular markers. Seven genotypes per species were evaluated using 1-year-old trees. The nutritional characterisation included chlorophyll, protein, macronutrients, micronutrients, and heavy metals. Simple sequence repeat (SSR) was applied using nine primers for genetic characterisation. Significant differences in nutritional content were found between the two species and among the genotypes of each species. Mp had more chlorophyll content, however Mo contained higher protein, Fe and Zn. Correlations among nutritional characteristics allowed representative classification of genotypes based on these pertinent indicators only. Cluster analysis separated the genotypes of each species in independent group, but three Mo genotypes and two Mp genotypes were distinguished for their variability in nutritional properties. Most Mo genotypes amplified the nine SSR primers, however 6/9 primers only produced bands in Mp genotypes. The number of amplified primers per Mp genotype varied from zero to six. A strong relationship was found between nutritional and molecular classifications of genotypes. The efficient classification based on four chemical characteristics could be beneficial for Moringa evaluation. The correlation between genetic and nutritional variability could serve in improving Moringa and identifying genetic criteria.

Effects of Scleroderma sichuanensis Xiao (Hymenoptera: Bethylidae) venom and parasitism on nutritional content regulation in host Tenebrio molitor L. (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae).

To explore the mechanisms by which the wasp Scleroderma sichuanensis Xiao regulates the physiology and biochemistry of its host, effects of S. sichuanensis venom and parasitism on host the Tenebrio molitor L. pupae were examined. Significant differences in nutritional content were noted between parasitized and non-parasitized pupae and between venom- and phosphate buffered saline-injected pupae. When pupae were injected with venom, the fat body could not be disintegrated into granules; however, when pupae were parasitized, fat-body disintegration occurred. Electrophoresis showed no differences in hemolymph protein content between parasitized pupae and those injected with venom, indicating that the wasp did not have narrow-spectrum peptides. These findings confirmed that S. sichuanensis was a typical idiobiont ectoparasitoid wasp, and that nutrient regulation was similar between idiobiont and koinobiont wasps. The strong similarities between the two treatments suggest that venom injection is a major factor responsible for changes in host nutrient content. The wasp fed mainly on reducing sugars, free amino acids, and fat-body tissues; larval fat bodies were derived from hemolymph and from host tissue. Our findings suggest that lipid catabolism might be accelerated, and that lipid biosynthesis might be inhibited, when host pupae are parasitized or injected with venom. In addition to venom, physiological and biochemical changes that occur during the parasitic process might be caused by venom, ovarian proteins, saliva, or secretions.

Selective Foraging by Pogonomyrmex salinus (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) in Semiarid Grassland: Implications for a Rare Plant.

Selective foraging by granivores can have important consequences for the structure and composition of plant communities, and potentially severe consequences for rare plant species. To understand how granivore foraging behavior affects common and rare plant species, diet selection should be viewed relative to the availability of alternative seed options, and with consideration of the individual attributes of those seeds (e.g., morphology, nutrient content). We examined the foraging decisions of Owyhee harvester ants, Pogonomyrmex salinus (Olsen), in semiarid grassland dominated by two species of grass, Poa secunda and Bromus tectorum, and two species of mustard, Sisymbrium altissimum and Lepidium papilliferum The latter is a rare plant endemic to southwestern Idaho, and its seeds are readily consumed by P. salinus We examined the diets of P. salinus colonies in June and July over three years and compared these values to the weekly availability of seeds on the ground in a 3-12 -m radius around individual ant colonies. Small-seeded species (P. secunda, S. altissimum, and L. papilliferum) were usually overrepresented in the diet of ants relative to their availability, whereas the large seeds of B. tectorum were largely avoided despite being abundant and nutritious. The reduced travel time associated with carrying small seeds may overshadow differences in nutritional content among seed types, except in times when small seeds are in short supply. Lepidium papilliferum appears particularly vulnerable to seed predation, likely in part because it grows in dense patches that are easily exploited by foragers.

Flesh nutritional content of growth hormone transgenic and non-transgenic coho salmon compared to various species of farmed and wild salmon

This study assessed the flesh proximate and lipid composition of two year classes and sizes of non-transgenic (NT) and transgenic (T) coho salmon ( Oncorhynchus kisutch ) that were grown to market size in the same rearing environment and on similar commercial feeds. The data also assessed land-based commercially raised farmed coho salmon, as well as two other species of ocean-raised farmed salmonids, and four species of wild Pacific salmon. The largest differences in nutritional content were seen between wild and farmed salmon. Farmed salmon contained higher muscle lipid levels and had higher levels of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) relative to wild counterparts. Moreover, the farmed fish also contained higher levels of n-6 poly-unsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) and a lower omega-3 to omega-6 ratios (n-3/n-6). There were small differences in nutritional content between NT and T coho salmon, but most of these differences were due to the lower body weight and consequently lower lipid content in the small T coho salmon group. The larger NT coho salmon were very similar in nutritional content to their T counterparts. Overall, fish diet composition and rearing location (commercial feeds in culture vs. natural prey in the wild) had a much larger influence on the flesh nutritional content than did effects of the transgene, and all salmon, regardless of source, were found to be rich sources of EPA and DHA. • Limited data exists on the nutritional composition of transgenic salmon. • This study examined the flesh proximate and lipid composition of laboratory raised transgenic and non-transgenic coho salmon. • The largest differences in nutritional content were seen between wild and farmed salmon, while small differences existed between transgenic and non-transgenic salmon. • Overall, all salmon, regardless of source, were found to be rich sources of EPA and DHA.

Highly nested diets in intrapopulation monkey–resource food webs

Recently several studies have focused on the structure of ecological networks to provide insights into ecological and coevolutionary dynamics of interacting species. However, rarely have the tools of ecological networks been used to understand how feeding relationships vary among individuals of the same population. Here we use 7 years of data and network analyzed to examine the intrapopulation diet variation in a group of howler monkeys (Alouatta palliata). We show that individual monkey-resource food webs are nested, but not modular and the stability of these patterns is independent of time of day or season. Our findings indicated that individuals do not forage randomly when compared to null models and that the diets of more selective monkeys represent subsets of the diets of other individuals. Moreover, there are no subgroups that eat a particular set of available plant species more frequently than other sets, suggesting that the spatial strategy of group foraging plays an important role in the feeding ecology of each group given that individuals of the same group tend to share similar resources while the group remains at a feeding site. Since the diets of more selective individuals are a subset of other monkeys, we suggest that more selective monkeys are able to outcompete others for preferred foods. Additionally, we did not observe differences in nutritional content or spatial abundance of more frequently eaten plant species when compared with less frequently eaten species, but in most cases, the more frequently eaten plant species were Ficus (Moraceae). This reinforces the important role that Ficus trees play in howler monkey feeding ecology, likely due to its year-round availability.

Photographic Examination of Student Lunches in Schools Using the Balanced School Day Versus Traditional School Day Schedules

Background. Canadian schools have broadly adopted a schedule where school days are divided into 3 blocks with 2 breaks. Given childhood obesity rates, changes affecting diet should be examined. The aim of this study was to (1) compare calories and composition of lunches from students attending schools, using different schedules; and (2) analyze elementary student lunches. Methods. Diary logs and photographs were taken of lunches on 4 days. Meals were analyzed using a nutrition software program, and differences between number of beverages, calories, and nutrients were examined for different schedules. Results. A total of 117 students (81% response rate) in grades 3 to 6 participated. Students using the Balanced School Day schedule had more beverages than the Traditional School Day schedule (BSD, 1.42; TSD, 1.18; P = .04). There were no other significant differences in nutritional content of food, based on schedule. In general, student lunches were high in sugar and salt and low in fiber, fruit, vegetables, vitamins, and minerals. Conclusions. Except beverages, the schedule did not affect student lunches. Parents/guardians should (1) increase fruits and vegetables, (2) limit desserts and snacks, (3) supply 1% or skim milk, (4) discontinue fruit juice and sugar-based beverages, and (5) increase higher-fiber, grain-based foods and legumes. These initiatives require community support.

Socio-economic and gender differences in nutritional content of foods advertised in popular UK weekly magazines

Advertising in magazines contributes to nutritional knowledge and social norms and may play a role in food choice and adiposity. In contrast to food advertising on television, that in magazines has received little research attention. We describe the type and nutritional content of foods advertised in popular UK weekly magazines and explore variations in these according to the socio-economic and gender profile of readers. Four consecutive issues of 30 popular UK weekly magazines were obtained. Food advertisements were categorized into one of eight food groups. Manufacturer's data on the nutritional content of advertised foods was used to determine the nutritional content of advertised foods. Socio-economic and gender profile of magazines was determined from national readership statistics. Four hundred forty three advertisements for food products were identified. The most common categories of foods advertised were meals, combination foods, soups and sauces (26%) and foods containing fat/sugar (23%). Advertised foods had a lower percentage of energy from carbohydrate (43%), lower fibre density (2 g/MJ), but higher percentage of energy from sugars (24%) and higher sodium density (0.5 g/MJ) than a diet recommended to avoid diet-related disease. There were variations in the type of foods advertised according to the socio-economic profile of readers and in the nutritional content of advertised foods according to the socio-economic and gender profile of readers. Food advertising reflects, and may reinforce, socio-economic and gender variations in food choice and adiposity. Producers of more healthy food may need help from policy makers and health promoters to effectively market their products.

Discrimination abilities for nutrients: which difference matters for choosy birds and why?

Fine-tuned discrimination abilities are a prerequisite for optimal diet theory (ODT) and the concept of nutrient regulation as alternative models of food choice. These abilities have rarely been determined, and neither has been applied to frugivorous consumers. We investigated nutrient choices of four tanagers (Tachyphonus cristatus, Dacnis cayana, Chlorophanes spiza and Cyanerpes nitidus) for different lipid or carbohydrate concentrations, and determined discrimination abilities by reducing in steps the difference between two foods ranging from 2.5 to 12%. Three species detected differences in sugar concentrations of only 1% and differences in lipid content of 2%. Hence, frugivorous tanagers were able to select the more rewarding food based on fine-scale differences in nutritional content. Tanagers also consumed more carbohydrates than proteins or lipids in isocaloric trials, but were indifferent to equicaloric solutions of 20% of either glucose or sucrose. In contrast to foods with low sugar contents, intake of foods high in lipids or carbohydrates was limited to a protein intake of 0.75g/7h. Lipid and carbohydrates were treated as though they were interchangeable nutrients for birds at low, but not at high, sugar concentrations. Furthermore, the tanagers discriminated foods containing the same amount of protein but differing in the type of protein. Preference for boviserine serum albumin (BSA) over casein was not related to moult. We supplemented the food consisting of casein with the essential amino acid cysteine to match cysteine concentrations of BSA. The birds then consumed more of the casein food than of the cysteine-supplemented casein food. Overall, the birds' consistent choices in the experiments with foods of different energy density are interpretable by both ODT and the nutrient regulation theory. However, only the latter accounts for the birds' choices of isocaloric foods differing in macro- or micronutritional content. Models of food selection should therefore focus on nutrient geometry and consumer-specific requirements. Copyright 2003 Published by Elsevier Science Ltd on behalf of The Association for the Study of Animal Behaviour.

Hydroid defenses against predators: the importance of secondary metabolites versus nematocysts.

Marine hydroids are commonly thought to be defended by stinging organelles called nematocysts that penetrate predator tissues and inject proteinaceous venoms, but not all hydroids possess these nematocysts. Although an increasing number of bioactive secondary metabolites have been isolated from marine hydroids, ecological roles of these compounds are poorly known. To test the hypothesis that nematocysts and noxious secondary metabolites represent alternative defenses against predation, we examined hydroids from North Carolina, United States for: (1) the palatability of whole polyps before and after nematocysts had been deactivated; (2) the palatability of their chemical extracts; and (3) their nutritional value in terms of organic content, protein content, and levels of refractory structural material (chitin). All hydroids were avoided by a generalist predator, the pinfish Lagodon rhomboides, compared with palatable control foods. Two of these (Halocordyle disticha and Tubularia crocea) became palatable after being treated with potassium chloride to discharge their nematocysts, suggesting that these species rely on nematocysts for defenses against predators. Chemical extracts from nematocyst-defended species had no effect on fish feeding. The four species that remained unpalatable after nematocysts had been discharged (Corydendrium parasiticum, Eudendrium carneum, Hydractinia symbiolongicarpus, Tridentata marginata) possessed chemical extracts that deterred feeding by pinfish. We have isolated and characterized the structures of the deterrent metabolites in two of these species. We found no differences in nutritional content or levels of chitin between nematocyst-defended and chemically defended species, and no evidence that either of these played a role in the rejection of hydroids as prey. Our results suggest that, among hydroids, chemical defenses may be at least as common as nematocyst-based defenses and that the two may represent largely alternative defensive strategies. The four hydroid species with deterrent extracts represent four families and both sub-orders of hydroids, suggesting that chemical defenses in this group may be widespread and have multiple origins.

Condensed Tannins in Fruits Eaten by Chimpanzees

Condensed tannins were assayed in the unripe fruit flesh of 37 species collected in Gombe National Park, Tanzania. These fruits are known to be eaten by chimpanzees when ripe, but are rarely or never eaten when unripe. The median concentration of condensed tannin was high enough (1.6% wet weight) to suggest that tannins significantly reduce the palatability of many wild unripe fruits. Tannin levels did not vary systematically with plant growth form, fruit morphology or fruit size, but the fruits which were eaten most often when ripe had higher tannin levels when unripe than those less commonly eaten. FRUGIVOROUS ANIMALS NORMALLY EAT RIPE FRUITS in preference to unripe fruits. As a result, they disperse seeds which would be destroyed or less viable if the fruit were consumed while unripe (McKey 1975). Why are immature fruits not eaten? First, they may have less available energy, protein and other nutrients than ripe fruits (Foster 1977). Second, they can be protected by toxins such as alkaloids, or by digestion-inhibiting compounds such as tannins and lignins (McKey 1979, Herrera 1982). Species differences in nutritional content have been found to influence the attractiveness of ripe fruits to frugivores (Howe and Vande Kerckhove 1980), but comparatively little is known about the concentrations or effects of secondary compounds in unripe wild fruits. However, tannins have been proposed as a protective agent of particular importance Janzen 1978, Herrera 1982), partly because many domestic species such as bananas, grapes, guavas, persimmons and pomaceous fruits have high levels of condensed tannin in unripe fruit flesh (Goldstein and Swain 1963, Hulme 1971). Tannins render the flesh unpalatable because they precipitate salivary mucoprotein and thereby cause astringency Joslyn and Goldstein 1964), and they interfere with digestion by reducing protein availability in the gut (Swain 1979). Many wild tropical plants are known to have high levels of condensed tannins in bark, leaves and seeds (Gartlan et cal. 1980), so tannins may be present in fruits also. Furthermore, tannins seem appropriate for protecting fruit because they are easily rendered biologically inactive. In ripening domestic fruits, they form large polymers or complexes with pectins, thereby losing their astringency. As a result, the fruit becomes more palatable (Goldstein and Swain 1963). We therefore investigated the levels of condensed tannins in a set of African wild fruits whose seeds are normally dispersed by frugivores. In order to relate condensed tannin concentrations to frugivore feeding behavior, we analysed fruits in Gombe National Park, Tanzania, where the diets of chimpanzees, Pan troglodytes, had been studied previously. In Gombe, chimpanzees spent 59.4 percent of their feeding time eating fruits (Wrangham 1977). Other frugivores present included primates (blue monkey Cercopithecus mitis, redtail monkey C. ascanius, baboons Papio anubis, red colobus monkey Colobus badius), bats (straw-colored fruit bat Eidolon helvum), and hornbills (Tockus spp.). MATERIALS AND METHODS All fleshy or arillate fruits which could be found were collected in Gombe National Park in August 1978 (middry season) and December 1978 (early wet season). The Park lies on the eastern shore of Lake Tanganyika (4?40'S, 29?38'E) in a strip of mountainous country between 772 m and 1500 m altitude, with an annual rainfall of 145171 cm. Evergreen forest, characterised by a well-developed upper canopy at about 30 m and abundant vine cover, occurs in valley bottoms and other well-watered sites. Valley sides support semi-deciduous forest, and upland areas include both a single-canopy miombo woodland and open grassland (Clutton-Brock and Gillett 1979). Ripe fruits were classified as those of terminal size, texture and color; unripe fruits were smaller, harder, and/ or colored differently. The proanthocyanidin assay for condensed tannins was performed within 24 hours of collection on fruit flesh from which stalk, skin and seeds had been removed. Further samples of fruit flesh with, where possible, separated seeds, were preserved in 100 percent methanol for laboratory analysis. This method of preservation was used because dried ripe fruit are susceptible to fungal attack during prolonged storage. BIOTROPICA 15(3): 217-222 1983 217 This content downloaded from 207.46.13.178 on Wed, 15 Jun 2016 06:47:33 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms Samples of fruit flesh were air-dried to constant weight to give an estimate of average moisture content in im-