Differences In Level Of Motivation Research Articles

MOTIVATED TO SUCCEED: A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF UNDERGRADUATE MEDICAL STUDENTS IN PUBLIC AND PRIVATE MEDICAL SCHOOLS.

Objectives: This study aimed to explore academic motivation among first-year medical students, examining differences in motivation levels based on gender, type of medical school, and living arrangement. Materials and Methods: A total of 192 first-year medical students participated in the survey with an equal number of responses from public and private medical schools in this cross-sectional survey. The study utilized the Academic Motivation Scale (AMS) to assess academic motivation levels. The independent sample t-test was used to examine diff erences in academic motivation between groups. Results: The mean score for academic motivation among participants was 136.94 ± 20.974, with no significant diff erence between male and female students. Private medical school students had a higher overall mean score of academic motivation than public medical school students, although the difference was not statistically significant. Private medical school students scored higher in the Intrinsic Motivation - To Know (p-value<0.001), and Intrinsic Motivation - To Experience Stimulation (p-value=0.001) subscales. Public medical school students scored higher in the Extrinsic Motivation - Introjected subscale. Hostellers and day scholars showed no significant difference in overall academic motivation. Conclusion: The study provides insights into the academic motivation of first-year medical students. No signifi cant differences were found in the overall academic motivation scores of different demographic groups of the students. However, differences were observed in the subscale scores of students. Private sector medical students and male students scored higher in Intrinsic Motivation - to know and experience stimulation than public sector medical students and female students respectively.

Motivation and Behaviors Related to Sport Specialization in College Baseball Players.

Early sport specialization is a growing concern among youth sports athletes, particularly in baseball. Motivation to participate in sports is an important factor in determining which sports youth athletes participate in and why. The purpose of this study was to qualitatively investigate youth sport participation behaviors and motivations of college baseball players. Qualitative Study. Online Teleconference. We conducted 25 semi-structured interviews with college baseball athletes who were classified as either high-level (n=8), moderate-level (n=9), or low-level specialists (n=8) prior to college. Participants completed an individual semi-structured interview to develop an understanding of the participants' youth and high school sports experiences and associated motivations to participate in those experiences. A framework analysis approach was used to analyze transcript data to identify themes among the three specialization groups. From our interview analysis, six overall themes emerged among the groups: (1) Motivation, (2) Stress, (3) Quitting, (4) Barriers, (5) Facilitators of Success, and (6) Future Directions. Moderate and high-level specialists described higher levels of passion, participating in deliberate practice, higher levels of performance-related stress, and a desire to quit sports more than low-level specialists. None of the groups described parents as an overbearing external motivator to participate in sports at an early age. Participants who were classified as low-, moderate-, and high-level specialists described different experiences related to their motivation, stress levels, desire to quit, barriers to participating in baseball, facilitators of success, and their overall future career goals after completing baseball. This information may be useful for parents, coaches, and health care professionals to better communicate the benefits and risks associated with sport specialization to youth athletes. Future research is needed to determine if differences in motivation levels exist in younger populations.

A Comparative Study of Motivation in Sports Training among Senior and Junior Professional Football Players in Bosnia and Herzegovina during the COVID-19 Pandemic

The Covid-19 pandemic has brought significant changes to the lives of athletes, particularly regarding the uncertainty surrounding the continuation of sports training and the postponement of sporting events. Given these disruptions to athletes’ routines, the role of motivation in sports participation is considered even more crucial. Therefore, this study aimed to examine the differences in motivation for sports participation during the Covid-19 pandemic between senior and junior professional football players. The sample consisted of 358 elite football players from the Premier League of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The players were divided into two groups: senior (n=193, 24.87±3.78 years) and junior (n=165, 18.08±1.00 years) football players. The Participation Motivation Questionnaire (PMQ) was utilized, comprising 19 items classified into six motivational dimensions: “Sports success”, “Social status”, “Friendship”, “Physical health”, “Sports activity”, and “Support”. A five-point Likert scale was used in the questionnaire, which was administered electronically via Google Forms. Results revealed that junior football players achieved significantly higher values in only three out of the 19 items: “Want to be popular” (.005), “Want to get status” (.001), and “Wished for friendly games” (.000). However, there were no differences between the senior and junior football player groups in the remaining 16 items. Also, both groups displayed exceptionally high motivation levels in the dimensions of “Sports success”, “Physical health”, and “’Friendship”, while the weakest results were observed in the dimension of ‘Support’ for both groups. Despite the specific challenges posed by the Covid-19 pandemic, the motivation to play football remains very high among both senior and junior football players. This study is essential as it provides insights into football players’ motivation and identifies differences in motivation levels between junior and senior players. The findings can be valuable for practical purposes, aiming to enhance motivation among football players, especially during circumstances where training conditions are disrupted, such as the Covid-19 pandemic.

Task-Based Learning (TBL) Approach: An Effective Method for Improving English Language Communication Skills in Public Primary Schools in Morogoro Municipality, Tanzania

The main objective of our study was to assess the effectiveness of Task-Based Learning (TBL) in improving pupils' communicative ability in English language in public primary schools in Morogoro municipality, Tanzania. To achieve this, we utilized a mixed approach, incorporating qualitative and quantitative methods for data collection and analysis. We selected six primary schools, with a total of 320 respondents divided into an experimental group (160 respondents) and a control group (160 respondents). Data were collected through pre- and post-tests, classroom observations, and interviews with both pupil and teachers. The results of our study revealed that the experimental group, which was exposed to TBL, performed significantly better than the control group. Overall, the experimental groups consistently outperformed the control groups. Furthermore, the findings from the motivation questionnaire indicated a significant difference in motivation levels between the experimental and control groups in the post-test, suggesting that the experimental group's motivation increased significantly. Our findings have significant practical implications for teachers and policymakers in Tanzania and other countries where English is taught as a second language. Specifically, our study shows that TBL is an effective strategy for promoting communication skills in English. Also, TBL can be considered as a viable approach to enhance pupils' communicative ability and promote their motivation in language learning. Therefore, we recommend that teachers and policymakers consider adopting the TBL approach to enhance pupils' English language proficiency.

Perbandingan Motivasi Belajar Siswa Pada Saat Pembelajaran IPS Secara Daring dan Tatap Muka: Studi Komparatif di SMPN 1 Lembang

The outbreak of Covid-19 has significantly impacted students’ learning process and motivation levels. This study aimed to investigate students' motivation levels during face-to-face and virtual learning in social studies and compare students’ learning motivation after the policies implemented due to Covid-19. The research employed a quantitative approach with a comparative descriptive method, with a sample size of 72 students from classes VII-A and VII-B of SMPN 1 Lembang. The instrument testing was conducted by performing validity and reliability tests with a significance table of 5%. The data obtained were processed using normality tests, which showed that the data was normal and homogeneous. The data was processed through parametric testing by performing independent samples t-test. The statistical test results showed a significance value of 0.000, less than 0.05. The statistical test results concluded that there were differences in students' motivation when learning social studies in virtual and face-to-face settings. The findings of this study revealed that the difference in motivation level could be observed from the average descriptive analysis of students during virtual social studies learning in the low and high categories, while face-to-face learning was in the high and very high categories between male and female students.Keywords: Learning motivation, social studies learning, virtual and face-to-face learning.

Exploring the Effect of Remote Teaching on Preservice Special Education Teachers Motivation During COVID-19 Pandemic

The study aimed to explore the impact of remote teaching on the motivation towards learning of special education students in a private university in the UAE. The researchers administered a 22-item questionnaire to 150 special education students and analyzed the data collected to determine the level of their motivation towards remote teaching. The results of the study revealed that the motivation of special education students towards remote teaching was moderate. The study also found that there was no significant difference in motivation levels based on gender, academic year, and job status. The findings of this study can be beneficial for designing and implementing teacher education programs that cater to the needs of special education students. Furthermore, the study provides valuable insights into the effective use of remote teaching in special education. The implications of the study suggest that educators need to develop specific strategies to increase the motivation of special education students towards remote learning. For example, educators may consider the use of interactive and engaging teaching methods, such as gamification or multimedia tools, to increase student engagement and motivation. Finally, the study recommends further research to explore the impact of remote teaching on the academic performance of special education students. Further research can help to identify effective teaching strategies that can enhance student learning outcomes and contribute to the development of effective teacher training programs.

INVESTIGATING THE MOTIVATION LEVEL OF STUDENTS IN ONLINE LEARNING IN JUNIOR HIGH EDUCATION INSTITUTION DURING PANDEMIC COVID-19

The purpose of this study was to investigate and explore the level of junior high student’s motivation during online learning in pandemic COVID-19. In this design-based research study, motivation level is examined by ARCS survey, interview and observation. The total of respondents were 180 students with different degree levels of study, gender and academic achievement. The analyzed data was measured by SPSS. From this research, the result shows that students of middle degree level have the highest motivation level during pandemic. A statistically significant difference in motivation level is also seen at the beginning of online learning and at the middle of online learning.

Progress testing and its effect on medical student motivation

Assessment has a pivotal role in medical education, as it can direct student learning. Motivation is an essential factor that determines learning assessment results. One of the aims of assessment is to determine the level of student knowledge, one of which can be measured by a progress test. This study aimed to determine the relationship between progress test and student motivation. This study used a cross-sectional observational analytic method. It was conducted in 2017 at Faculty of Medicine Universitas Sebelas Maret (FM UNS), Indonesia. The respondents consisted of 253 students from batch 2014, 2015, and 2016. The sample was selected by stratified random sampling. The instrument used to assess academic motivation was the academic motivation scale (AMS). The research data were analyzed using the Pearson correlation test. There is a significant positive correlation between progress test results and academic motivation (r=0.500; p=0.000). However, there is no significant difference in motivation level based on gender (p=0.889) and student cohort (p=0.533). In the progress test score, there are significant differences based on gender (p=0.014) and grade-point average (p=0.000). However, there is no significant difference in the progress test scores based on the student batch (p=0.212). The results support that progress test is useful assessment method to support medical student’s motivation.

Changing lifestyle for dementia risk reduction: Inductive content analysis of a national UK survey.

To explore what motivates individuals to change their behaviour to reduce their risk of dementia. We conducted secondary qualitative analysis of a UK-based online survey on motivation to change lifestyle and health behaviour for dementia risk reduction. Participants were recruited through social media, the Join Dementia Research network and the National Institute for Health Research Portfolio. Free-text comments from people aged ≥50 years were analysed by two researchers independently using inductive content analysis. Inter-rater agreement was measured through Cohen's Kappa coefficient. Of the 3,948 participants completing the survey, 653 provided free text comments that were included in the analysis (Mean age = 64.1; SD = 8.3 years). The majority of the sample were women (n = 459; 70.3%), Caucasian (n = 625; 95.7%) and married/in partnership (n = 459; 70.3%). Three overarching themes were identified: (1) motivators to changing lifestyle; (2) barriers for lifestyle change; and, (3) quality of the information received. The inter-rater reliability of the coding was high (k = 0.7). Having a family history of dementia or feeling like they had a healthy lifestyle already were motivating factors for behaviour change. Having competing health priorities other than dementia and caring for someone acted as de-motivators as they reduced the time available to dedicate to one's own health. Evidence-based information around dementia prevention was a motivator, but commonly the information was not trusted. Aligned with the World Health Organisation (WHO) mandate on dementia prevention, community health campaigns targeting population awareness around behaviour change and dementia risk factor reduction are urgently needed. To be successful, such campaigns will need to be accompanied by individual approaches that can overcome age-related barriers and individual differences in motivation levels, personal barriers and trust in the information received.

Correlates of nurses' motivation and their demographic characteristics.

Motivation is a significant concern for workforce management in healthcare organizations as it is linked to many important factors, such as performance, staff retention, and satisfaction. To assess motivation level, assess sources of motivation, and identify the difference in motivation level in relation to nurses' characteristics. The study was carried out in one major tertiary hospital in Riyadh, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. A total convenient sample of 550 nurses were recruited. All participants are working under the umbrella of executive nursing administration. Data were collected using a self-administered questionnaire, which consisted of 30 items that focused on assessing a nurse's motivation sources and level. In general, 346 nurses (62%) fully completed the survey. The average motivation level of nurses is 3.6 ± 0.5. Additionally, internal self-concept motivation was identified as the most predominant source of motivation (4.1 ± 0.6). Instrumental and goal internalization motivations ranked second (3.7 ± 0.6), whereas external self-concept (3.4 ± 0.7) and intrinsic (3 ± 0.7) motivations are the lowest sources of motivation. There is a significant difference in the motivation mean between males and females (P = 0.034). Another significant difference was revealed with different years of experience ( P = 0.021). The high percentage of internal self-concept motivation among nurses signified that nurses needed more than enjoyment of their work atmosphere, social acknowledgment, higher salary, and good rationale to give maximum effort. Although these should be taken into consideration, more attention should be given to practices that improve a nurse's challenge, autonomy, internal value, and competency.

Recruitment and effectiveness by cohort in a case management intervention among American Indians and Alaska Natives with diabetes.

In real-world settings, eligible populations and intervention effectiveness for a translational intervention likely vary across time. To determine the optimal strategies for effective large-scale implementation of evidence-based interventions, it is critical to investigate these potential variabilities. The purpose of this study is to evaluate whether patient characteristics and intervention effectiveness differed by year of enrollment in a multiyear evidence-based translational intervention. The Special Diabetes Program for Indians Healthy Heart (SDPI-HH) Demonstration Project is an intensive case management intervention designed to reduce cardiovascular disease risk among American Indians and Alaska Natives with diabetes. SDPI-HH participants recruited from 2006 through 2008 were included. Baseline characteristics were compared by year of enrollment. We also evaluated the differences in improvements in clinical and behavioral risk factors for cardiovascular disease among participants recruited in different years. The baseline characteristics of the three cohorts significantly differed in demographics, diabetes duration, health behaviors, level of motivation, and clinical measures. Improvements in 13 clinical and behavioral outcomes also differed by enrollment year with the 2006 cohort having the greatest number of significant improvements and the highest rates of participation and retention. Further investigation into the ways to modify the intensive case management model to address differences in levels of motivation and participation is warranted to improve the management of chronic disease in Indian health. Given the evolving nature of translational initiatives of this kind, our analysis results highlight the need to understand and adapt during the natural progression of health behavioral interventions.

Examining the motivation level of students in e-learning in higher education institution in Thailand: A case study

The rapid growth of Internet technology has resulted in the development of e-learning in higher education institution with the purpose of enhancing students’ performance in their learning practice. In this regard, motivation is one of the important predictors of intention to use e-learning that can in turn make impact on students’ learning practice. By knowing the motivation level of students, instructors can provide suitable teaching materials in e-learning for students to make them more engaged in e-learning activities. Nonetheless, based on the recent review studies result, there is limited research on investigating motivation level of students in e-learning in higher education institution in Thailand. Hence, this study aims to explore the motivation level of students in e-learning in higher education institutions in Thailand, using the Instructional Materials Motivation Survey and interview as the research instruments. A total of 174 students from higher education institutions in Thailand were involved in this study. SPSS software was used to analyse the data to investigate the motivation level of students, and also to compare the different motivation level of students between gender, degree level of study, branch of study and year of study. The result shows that most of the students had upper medium level of motivation level in e-learning, and there was a statistically significant difference in motivation level between the different degree levels of students. Also, the ways to enhance motivation suggested by the respondents were also discussed in this paper as a reference for the future use.

Abstract P030: Recruitment and Effectiveness by Cohort in a Case Management Intervention Among American Indians and Alaska Natives with Diabetes

Introduction: To determine the optimal strategies for effective large-scale implementation of evidence-based interventions, it is critical to investigate continued effectiveness as an intervention rolls out to large, diverse populations. The purpose of this study is to evaluate whether patient characteristics and intervention effectiveness differ by year of enrollment in a multi-year evidence-based translational intervention. Hypothesis: We hypothesize the patients recruited early may have a higher level of readiness to change their behaviors and achieve more improvements in their intervention outcomes than patients enrolled in later years. Methods: The Special Diabetes Program for Indians Healthy Heart (SDPI-HH) Demonstration Project is an intensive case management intervention designed to reduce cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk among American Indian and Alaska Native patients with diabetes. SDPI-HH participants recruited from 2006 through 2008 were included (n=2,910). Baseline characteristics were compared by year of enrollment. We also evaluated the differences in improvements in CVD risk factors among participants recruited in different years. Results: The baseline characteristics of the three cohorts revealed significant differences in demographics, diabetes duration, health behaviors, level of motivation, and clinical measures. Improvements in 13 clinical and behavioral outcomes differed by enrollment year with the 2006 cohort having the greatest number of statistically significant improvements (Table 1). The 2006 cohort also had the highest rates of participant participation and retention. Conclusions: The SDPI-HH participants recruited later had fewer improvements in CVD risk factors, potentially due to the decline in participant motivation over the three years. Further investigation into ways to modify the intensive case management model to address differences in levels of motivation and participation is warranted to improve the prevention of chronic disease in Indian health.

الدافعیة المهنیة للتدریس لدى معلمی الریاضیات فی البیئة الثقافیة العربیة: دراسة تحلیلیة

تعد الدافعیة المهنیة للتدریس من العناصر المؤثرة فی الأداء التدریسی للمعلم، وکلما ارتفع مستوى الدافعیة المهنیة للتدریس لدى المعلم؛ کلما استطاع التدریس بکفاءة وتحفیز طلابه للتعلم وتحقیق أهداف التعلم المدرسی. لذا تهدف الدراسة الحالیة إلى استکشاف مستوى الدافعیة المهنیة للتدریس لدى معلمی الریاضیات فی البیئة الثقافیة العربیةبدراسة تحلیلیة مستعرضة، من خلال تحدید مستویات الدافعیة المهنیة للتدریس عبر مراحل النمو المهنی للمعلم، ودراسة الأسباب المؤدیة لارتفاعها أوانخفاضها. وقد استخدم البحثمقیاس مستوى الدافعیة المهنیة للتدریس لدى معلمی الریاضیاتوتم تطبیقه الکترونیا على مجموعة الدراسة. التی تضمنت معلمی الریاضیات فی مرحلة الإعداد قبل الخدمة بکلیات إعداد المعلم، وأثناء الخدمة فی (9) دول عربیة (مصر – السعودیة –الإمارات -سلطنةعمان -البحرین–لبنان– فلسطین – العراق–المغرب)، وعددهم (213) طالبا ومعلما ومشرفا تربویا. والمقابلة الشخصیة: تم إجراء مقابلات شخصیة فردیة الکترونیة عبر وسائل التواصل الاجتماعی مع بعض المعلمین مجموعة الدراسة من مستویات دافعیة متنوعة (مرتفعة – متوسطة – منخفضة) بلغ عددهم (15). وکانت أسئلة البحث (1) ما مستویات الدافعیة المهنیة للتدریس لدى معلمی الریاضیات مجموعة البحث؟ (2) هل تختلف مستویات الدافعیة المهنیة للتدریس لدى معلمی الریاضیات تبعا لـ (النوع –المؤهلالدراسی-سنوات الخبرة-الوظیفة التی یشغلها – المرحلة التعلیمیة أو الدولة التی یعمل بها)؟(3)ما العوامل المؤثرةفی ارتفاع أو انخفاض الدافعیة المهنیة للتدریس لدى معلمی الریاضیات قبل الخدمة وأثناء الخدمة؟،وفی ضوء نتائج تطبیق المقیاس والمقابلات الشخصیة تم التوصل إلى تحدید مستویات الدافعیة المهنیة للتدریس لدى معلمی الریاضیات فی البیئة الثقافیة العربیة بأنها من متوسطة إلى مرتفعة، وأنه لا یوجد اختلاف فی مستویات الدافعیة المهنیة للتدریس لدى معلمی الریاضیات تعزى لمتغیرات (النوع، والمؤهل الدراسی، وسنوات الخبرة، والوظیفة التی یشغلها، والمرحلة التعلیمیة والدولة التی یعمل بها)، وتم تحدید العواملالمؤثرة فی ارتفاع أو انخفاض الدافعیة لدیهم. وقدم البحث عدد من التوصیات والمقترحات. The Professional Motivation is one of affecting elements in Teacher's Teaching Performance, The higher professional motivation Teacher can Teach His Students to learn and achieve school learning goals. This research aim's to explore Mathematics Teachers’ Professional Motivation levels through Analytical Transversal study. The research use the Mathematics Teachers’ Professional Motivation Questionnaire with 213 Teachers from 10 Arab World Countries. In addition, Using Interview with 15 Teachers. The Research question are: (1) what are Mathematics Teachers’ Professional Motivation levels? (2) Are levels Differentiate refer to (gender, Qualifications, job, experience, Class Level, State). (3) What are factors affecting The Mathematics Teachers’ Professional Motivation levels? The results revealed that The Mathematics Teachers’ Professional Motivation levels are (Medium to high), and there are no differences in Motivation levels refer to (gender, Qualifications, job, experience, Class Level, State). Moreover, determine Factors and elements affecting The Mathematics Teachers’ Professional Motivation levels. The research present some implications, suggestion and recommendations.

Analysis of an Animal-Assisted Reading Intervention for Young Adolescents with Emotional/Behavioral Disabilities

Teaching students to enjoy reading is important in middle level education; however, middle school students with emotional behavioral disabilities (EBD) frequently struggle with reading skills and frequently display motivational deficits during reading instruction. The purpose of this study was to examine if the presence/absence of a classroom pet dog impacted reading skills in four fifth-grade students with EBD. An alternating treatment design was used to assess the fluency, comprehension, and level of motivation in four students when using a reading intervention package during a dog present (dog and researcher) and a dog absent condition (researcher only). All participants improved reading performance during intervention conditions compared to baseline. Improvements in reading measures were observed across participants in both treatment conditions compared to baseline. Differences in motivation levels were reported in three participants who indicated they enjoyed the dog present condition while the fourth enjoyed both treatment conditions equally. Implications of the potential role of middle level educators pairing themselves with animals during academic interventions for middle school students and other areas for future research in the area of animal-assisted learning are discussed.

An Exploration of Students’ Motivation to Lead: An Analysis by Race, Gender, and Student Leadership Behaviors

This exploratory study examined the motivation to lead of a random sample of 1,338 undergraduate students to determine the degree to which motivation to lead can predict leadership behaviors. Results suggested that students’ internal self-identity as a leader positively predicted behavior, while their “social normative” motivation to lead (i.e stemming from the groups to which they belong) served as a negative predictor. These effects emerged even when controlling for self-identified leadership skill and confidence in leading. While no gender differences in motivation levels emerged, students identifying as Asian and Asian American reported lower degrees of motivation to lead compared to their peers, indicating a need to more deeply examine the unique pathways to leadership among students with regard to racial identity.

Modeling Iso-Ahola’s Motivation Theory in the Tourism Context

Iso-Ahola’s theory asserts that personal escape, personal seeking, interpersonal escape, and interpersonal seeking motivate tourism and recreation. This article operationalizes and empirically tests Iso-Ahola’s theory for similar tourism and recreation experiences. The motivation dimensions are monitored using scenario-based data for sporting events, beaches, amusement parks, and natural parks. The first investigation used confirmatory factor analysis to explore the efficacy of six competing motivational structures. Three of these competing models achieved superior and similar fit statistics, with one model incorporating the most parsimonious structure. This model gave equal and direct salience to each of the four motivations. The second investigation examined the differences in motivation levels for tourism and recreation experiences. Tourism experiences exhibited higher levels of motivation, particularly for the personal seeking and personal escape dimensions. The third investigation found no relationship between the number of recent domestic and international vacations and tourism motivations among the subjects.

Motivation to manage in China and Hong Kong: A gender comparison of managers

Although women comprise an important part of the labor force in Hong Kong and the People's Republic of China (PRC), they remain underrepresented and underutilized in managerial positions. This study investigates the applicability of role motivation theory in the Chinese culture and examines if lack of motivation to manage is a potential explanation for this underrepresentation. Data were collected from 127 Hong Kong (68 men and 59 women) and 175 mainland Chinese (128 men and 47 women) managers. As expected, Hong Kong managers possess significantly higher levels of motivation to manage than do their PRC counterparts. There are, however, no significant gender-based differences in levels of motivation to manage in either Hong Kong or the PRC. Lack of motivation to manage does not appear to contribute to the underutilization of Chinese women in management in Hong Kong and mainland China.

Sex differences in appetitive learning of mice

Learning abilities of male and female ddY mice were compared in two appetitive tasks (a lever-press task and an 8-arm radial maze task), and two avoidance tasks (a shuttle box task and a light-dark discrimination T-maze task). In the two types of appetitive learning, male mice were significantly superior to female mice. Sex differences were particularly apparent in the acquisition process. In contrast, there was no significant sex difference in learning of the two avoidance tasks. A sex difference in appetitive learning was not found in juvenile mice prior to sexual maturation, and the mice which had established a lever-press response as juveniles did not show any significant difference in the performance level when tested as adults. Thus, a sex difference appeared only in the acquisition stage of adult mice. These results suggest that there exists a sex difference in motivation level for hunting food but not for feeding, and that it causes a sex difference in appetitive learning.

Motivations for Party Activism

This article reports the data from studies in four countries (United States, Netherlands, Sweden, and India) on the reasons for initial involvement in party activism and the reasons for continuance in party work. Considerable cross-national uniformity is discovered, although there are differences in level of motivation. In addition, the differences in motivational orientations for certain parties in multi-party, more ideologically conflicted systems, are particularly noted when such systems are compared with two-party and more moderately conflicted systems. The evidence suggests more ideological (purposive) motivations for party activists at the distant right and left extremes of these systems.