Differences In Satiety Research Articles

A blend of soluble fiber and resistant starch promotes feelings of fullness in humans

Some research suggests that high fiber foods cause greater satiety than low fiber foods. The mechanism is unclear, but may be related to the glycemic and insulin response to a meal. This randomized, double‐blind, crossover study examined differences in satiety scores and postprandial glucose and insulin concentrations among different types and combinations of fiber. On 5 occasions, subjects (n=20) consumed either a low‐fiber control breakfast or 1 of 4 breakfasts containing 25 g fiber from soluble corn fiber (SCF) or resistant starch (RS), alone or in combination with pullulan (SCF+P and RS+P), a soluble fiber. All breakfasts were equal in calories and macronutrients. Plasma glucose and insulin were measured and satiety was assessed via visual analog scales (VAS) for 3 hours after breakfast. Results were analyzed as area under the curve (AUC). The RS+P treatment caused significantly greater fullness than the control (p<0.05). While there was a trend of increased fullness with the other fiber treatments, no other significant differences in satiety were observed. Despite equal available carbohydrates, glucose and insulin AUC were significantly reduced for RS (p=0.03) and RS+P (p=0.01) compared to control. This indicates that a blend of soluble and insoluble fiber may be more effective in promoting satiety and favorably altering postprandial blood parameters. Supported by Tate & Lyle Health & Nutrition Sciences.Grant Funding Source: Supported by Tate & Lyle Health & Nutrition Sciences

Differences in satiety between glucose and fructose treatment

Previously we showed that after a brief exposure (24‐h) to dietary fructose (FRC) at 30% of energy intake, postprandial leptin levels were lower and post‐meal suppression of ghrelin was blunted compared to an isocaloric dose of dietary glucose (GLC). Since these hormones are thought to influence hunger and food intake behavior, we hypothesized that a longer exposure (10‐wk) to FRC at 25% of energy intake would lead to increased hunger and food intake related variables compared to an intervention containing 25% GLC. Overweight/obese subjects participating in a 10‐wk FRC (n= 12) or GLC (n= 12) intervention study, rated perceptions of hunger and appetite hourly using visual analog scales, at baseline and end of intervention. Raw hunger scores did not change significantly in response to the simple sugar interventions. Compared with baseline scores, visual analog scores for fullness were significantly (p < 0.05) different in post‐lunch and post‐dinner intervals for GLC treatment. Fullness scores for FRC group did not significantly change when compared to baseline values. Large between subject variability limits the usefulness of subjective reports of appetite under conditions of energy balance.

Efficacy of a meal replacement diet plan compared to a food-based diet plan after a period of weight loss and weight maintenance: a randomized controlled trial

BackgroundObesity has reached epidemic proportions in the United States. It is implicated in the development of a variety of chronic disease states and is associated with increased levels of inflammation and oxidative stress. The objective of this study is to examine the effect of Medifast's meal replacement program (MD) on body weight, body composition, and biomarkers of inflammation and oxidative stress among obese individuals following a period of weight loss and weight maintenance compared to a an isocaloric, food-based diet (FB).MethodsThis 40-week randomized, controlled clinical trial included 90 obese adults with a body mass index (BMI) between 30 and 50 kg/m2, randomly assigned to one of two weight loss programs for 16 weeks and then followed for a 24-week period of weight maintenance. The dietary interventions consisted of Medifast's meal replacement program for weight loss and weight maintenance, or a self-selected, isocaloric, food-based meal plan.ResultsWeight loss at 16 weeks was significantly better in the Medifast group (MD) versus the food-based group (FB) (12.3% vs. 6.9%), and while significantly more weight was regained during weight maintenance on MD versus FB, overall greater weight loss was achieved on MD versus FB. Significantly more of the MD participants lost ≥ 5% of their initial weight at week 16 (93% vs. 55%) and week 40 (62% vs. 30%). There was no difference in satiety observed between the two groups during the weight loss phase. Significant improvements in body composition were also observed in MD participants compared to FB at week 16 and week 40. At week 40, both groups experienced improvements in biochemical outcomes and other clinical indicators.ConclusionsOur data suggest that the meal replacement diet plan evaluated was an effective strategy for producing robust initial weight loss and for achieving improvements in a number of health-related parameters during weight maintenance, including inflammation and oxidative stress, two key factors more recently shown to underlie our most common chronic diseases.Trial RegistrationClinicalTrials.gov NCT01011491

Increasing doses of fiber do not influence short-term satiety or food intake and are inconsistently linked to gut hormone levels

Background: People who eat more fiber often have a lower body weight than people who eat less fiber. The mechanism for this relationship has been explained, in part, by increased satiety, which may occur as a result of changes in appetite-suppressing gut hormone levels, and decreases in food intake at subsequent meals.Objective: We hypothesized that increasing doses of mixed fiber, consumed in muffins for breakfast, would proportionally influence satiety, gut hormone levels, and subsequent food intake.Design: This was a randomized, double-blind, crossover study. Healthy men (n=10) and women (n=10) with a BMI of 24±2 (mean±SEM) participated in this study. Fasting subjects consumed a muffin with 0, 4, 8, or 12 g of mixed fibers and approximately 500 kcal. Visual analog scales rated hunger and satiety for 3 h; blood was drawn to measure ghrelin, glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1), and peptide YY3–36 (PYY3–36) at various intervals; and food intake was measured at an ad libitum lunch.Results: Responses to satiety-related questions did not differ among treatments. However, despite lack of differences in satiety, gut hormone levels differed among treatments. Ghrelin was higher after the 12 g fiber dose than after the 4 and 8 g fiber doses. GLP-1 was higher after the 0 g fiber dose than after the 12 and 4 g fiber doses, and PYY3–36 did not differ among fiber doses. Food intake was also indistinguishable among doses.Conclusion: Satiety, gut hormone response, and food intake did not change in a dose-dependent manner after subjects consumed 0, 4, 8, and 12 g of mixed fiber in muffins for breakfast.

Effect of the glycemic index of carbohydrates on day-long (10 h) profiles of plasma glucose, insulin, cholecystokinin and ghrelin

Low glycemic index (GI) carbohydrates have been linked to increased satiety. The drive to eat may be mediated by postprandial changes in glucose, insulin and gut peptides. To investigate the effect of a low and a high GI diet on day-long (10 h) blood concentrations of glucose, insulin, cholecystokinin (CCK) and ghrelin (GHR). Subjects (n=12) consumed a high and a low GI diet in a randomized, crossover design, consisting of four meals that were matched for macronutrients and fibre, and differed only in carbohydrate quality (GI). Blood was sampled every 30-60 min and assayed for glucose, insulin, CCK and GHR. The high GI diet resulted in significantly higher glucose and insulin mean incremental areas under the curve (IAUC, P=0.027 and P=0.001 respectively). CCK concentration was 59% higher during the first 7 h of the low GI diet (394+/-95 pmol/l min) vs the high GI diet (163+/-38 pmol/l min, P=0.046), but there was no difference over 10 h (P=0.224). GHR concentration was inversely correlated with insulin concentration (Pearson correlation -0.48, P=0.007), but did not differ significantly between the low and high GI diets. Mixed meals of lower GI are associated with lower day-long concentrations of glucose and insulin, and higher CCK after breakfast, morning tea and lunch. This metabolic profile could mediate differences in satiety and hunger seen in some, but not all, studies.

Effect of ileal fat perfusion on satiety and hormone release in healthy volunteers

The ileal brake is a feedback mechanism activated by nutrients, especially fat, with marked effects on satiety. The effects of low doses of ileal fat on satiety are largely unknown. We therefore studied the effect of ileal vs oral delivery of low doses of fat on satiety and gut peptide secretion. Randomized, single-blind crossover design. Sixteen healthy, normal-weight volunteers (6 male; mean age 26 years, mean body mass index 22.4). Participants were intubated with a 290-cm-long nasoileal tube and consumed, on 3 consecutive days, either a liquid breakfast with 3 g fat followed by an ileal placebo infusion at t=105-150 min (treatment C) or a fat-free liquid breakfast followed by an ileal infusion of either an emulsion of 3 g (treatment 13 g) or 9 g (treatment 19 g) fat (safflower oil). Satiety parameters by visual analog scales and plasma concentrations of CCK and PYY. C significantly increased satiety and CCK secretion compared with the fat-free breakfast. Ileal fat perfusion of both 3 and 9 g 13 g and 19 g) significantly increased satiety during and after fat perfusion, without differences in satiety between 13 g and 19 g. During ileal fat infusion, CCK increased dose dependently, whereas PYY concentrations increased significantly only after 9 g of fat. Secretion of CCK but not of PYY correlated to satiety levels. Postprandial satiety following a liquid breakfast can be effectively and significantly increased by small amounts (as little as 3 g) of fat perfused into the ileum. Ileal fat dose-dependently increased CCK but not PYY secretion. The satiating effect of ileal fat may be partly mediated by CCK.

No differences in satiety or energy intake after high-fructose corn syrup, sucrose, or milk preloads

No differences in satiety or energy intake after high-fructose corn syrup, sucrose, or milk preloads

No differences in satiety or energy intake after high-fructose corn syrup, sucrose, or milk preloads

It is unclear whether energy-containing drinks, especially those sweetened with high-fructose corn syrup (HFCS), promote positive energy balance and thereby play a role in the development of obesity. The objective was to examine the satiating effects of HFCS and sucrose in comparison with milk and a diet drink. The effects of four 800-mL drinks [corrected] containing no energy or 1.5 MJ from sucrose, HFCS, or milk on satiety were assessed, first in 15 men and 15 women with a mean (+/-SD) body mass index (BMI; in kg/m(2)) of 22.1 +/- 1.9 according to visual analogue scales (VAS) and blood variables and second in 20 men and 20 women (BMI: 22.4 +/- 2.1) according to ingestion of a standardized ad libitum meal (granola cereal + yogurt, 10.1 kJ/g). Fifty minutes after consumption of the 1.5-MJ preload drinks containing sucrose, HFCS, or milk, 170%-mm VAS changes in satiety were observed. Glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1) (P < 0.001) and ghrelin (P < 0.05) concentrations changed accordingly. Compensatory energy intake did not differ significantly between the 3 preloads and ranged from 30% to 45%. Energy intake compensations were related to satiety (r = 0.35, P < 0.05). No differences were observed between the effects of the sucrose- and HFCS-containing drinks on changes in VAS and on insulin, glucose, GLP-1, and ghrelin concentrations. Changes in appetite VAS ratings were a function of changes in GLP-1, ghrelin, insulin, and glucose concentrations. Energy balance consequences of HFCS-sweetened soft drinks are not different from those of other isoenergetic drinks, eg, a sucrose-drink or milk.

Glycaemic and satiating properties of potato products

To investigate glycaemic and satiating properties of potato products in healthy subjects using energy-equivalent or carbohydrate-equivalent test meals, respectively. Thirteen healthy subjects volunteered for the first study, and 14 for the second. The tests were performed at Applied Nutrition and Food Chemistry, Lund University, Sweden. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN AND TEST MEALS: All meals were served as breakfast in random order after an overnight fast. Study 1 included four energy-equivalent (1000 kJ) meals of boiled potatoes, french fries, or mashed potatoes; the latter varying in portion size by use of different amounts of water. The available carbohydrate content varied between 32.5 and 50.3 g/portion. Capillary blood samples were collected during 240 min for analysis of glucose, and satiety was measured with a subjective rating scale. Study 2 included four carbohydrate-equivalent meals (50 g available carbohydrates) of french fries, boiled potatoes served with and without addition of oil, and white wheat bread (reference). The energy content varied between 963 and 1534 kJ/portion. Capillary blood samples were collected during 180 min for analysis of glucose, and satiety was measured using a subjective rating scale. Study 1: boiled potatoes induced higher subjective satiety than french fries when compared on an energy-equivalent basis. The french fries elicited the lowest early glycaemic response and was less satiating in the early postprandial phase (area under the curve (AUC) 0-45 min). No differences were found in glycaemic or satiety response between boiled or mashed potatoes. Study 2: french fries resulted in a significantly lower glycaemic response (glycaemic index (GI)=77) than boiled potatoes either with or without addition of oil (GI=131 and 111, respectively). No differences were found in subjective satiety response between the products served on carbohydrate equivalence. Boiled potatoes were more satiating than french fries on an energy-equivalent basis, the effect being most prominent in the early postprandial phase, whereas no difference in satiety could be seen on a carbohydrate-equivalent basis. The lowered GI for french fries, showing a typical prolonged low-GI profile, could not be explained by the fat content per se.

Ghrelin Suppression in Overweight Children: A Manifestation of Insulin Resistance?

Ghrelin levels increase before and decrease after meals, potentially playing a role in meal initiation and satiety in an inverse pattern to that of insulin. The role of ghrelin in childhood obesity, a state associated with hyperinsulinism and insulin resistance, is not fully understood. Therefore, the aims of the present study were to investigate the dynamics of ghrelin suppression after an oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) in normal weight (NW) vs overweight (OW) children and the relationship of ghrelin suppression to insulin sensitivity. Thirty-seven NW (15 males and 22 females; 9.4 +/- 0.2 yr old) and 23 OW (13 males and 10 females; 9.4 +/- 0.3 yr old) prepubertal children underwent a 3-h OGTT with measurements of ghrelin, glucose, and insulin. The fasting glucose to insulin ratio and the whole body insulin sensitivity index were used to assess the relationship of insulin sensitivity to fasting ghrelin and ghrelin response to the OGTT, respectively. Fasting ghrelin levels were significantly lower in OW vs NW youth and were mainly influenced by insulin sensitivity independent of adiposity. OGTT-induced absolute suppression in ghrelin was approximately 50% less in OW vs NW children, resulting in a similar percent suppression from baseline in the two groups despite a significantly higher insulin response in OW. The suppression of ghrelin correlated positively with the whole body insulin sensitivity index (r = 0.43; P = 0.001) and negatively with the change in insulin at 30 min (r = -0.31; P = 0.02). Fasting ghrelin, the change in insulin, and the change in glucose during the OGTT were the significant independent variables contributing to the variance in absolute suppression of ghrelin (r2 = 0.42; P < 0.001). Only the change in glucose contributed significantly to the variance in the percent suppression of ghrelin (r2 = 0.14; P = 0.019). Fasting ghrelin and ghrelin suppression after OGTT are modulated by insulin sensitivity. Alterations in ghrelin suppression in OW children may be yet another manifestation of the insulin resistance of obesity. Whether this is responsible for differences in satiety in OW individuals merits additional investigation.

No difference in satiety or in subsequent energy intakes between a beverage and a solid food

Energy compensation following the consumption of caloric beverages is said to be imprecise and incomplete. This study compared the relative impact on satiety and energy intakes of the physical form of foods versus the timing of consumption. Thirty-two volunteers (16 men and 16 women), aged 18–35 years, consumed equal-energy preloads (1254 kJ, 300 kcal) of regular cola (710 ml, 24 oz) or fat-free raspberry cookies (87 g, 3 oz) on two occasions each. The preloads were presented either 2 h or 20 min before the test meal. Their principal ingredient was sugar. Participants rated motivational states prior to ingestion and at 30-min intervals. A tray lunch was presented at 12:30 p.m., and food consumption was measured. Regular cola and cookies suppressed hunger ratings equally and no temporal difference in satiety was observed. Cola, but not cookies, resulted in lower ratings of thirst. Energy intakes at lunch were lower when the preload was consumed closer to the test meal (20 min) but was not affected by physical form (liquid vs. solid). Cola, but not cookies, reduced water intakes at lunch. There was no satiety deficit following the ingestion of a beverage as compared with a solid food. The timing of consumption may be more important than the physical form of energy consumed.

Electrogastrography Before and After a High-Caloric, Liquid Test Meal in Healthy Volunteers and Patients with Severe Functional Dyspepsia

Background: The cutaneous recording of gastric electric rhythm, so-called electrogastrography (EGG), has been purported as a non-invasive method for studying patients with functional dyspepsia and unexplained nausea and vomiting. The aims of this study were to determine normal values for EGG characteristics before and after a liquid, high-caloric test meal and to investigate whether EGG could discriminate between patients with functional dyspepsia and normal controls. Methods: In studying 20 healthy volunteers and 10 patients with functional dyspepsia, we recorded gastric electrical activity during the 30 min before and after a liquid 1.0-1.5 kcal/ml test meal. Satiety before and after the meal was estimated on a 10-point scale. EGG was analysed regarding dominant frequency, instability of the dominant frequency, power ratio and percentage activity in the normal frequency range. Results: The mean ( ± s ) caloric intake in patients with functional dyspepsia (286 ± 160 kcal) was significantly lower ( P < 0.001) than in healthy volunteers (610 ± 211 kcal). The patients reported a more pronounced feeling of satiety before the test meal (5.6 ± 3.2) compared to healthy volunteers (3.6 ± 1.2, P < 0.05), but at the end of the test meal there was no difference in satiety (7.9 ± 2.5 versus 7.7 ± 1.0). However, none of the EGG parameters showed any difference between patients and healthy volunteers. Conclusions: EGG before and after a high-caloric test meal showed large variation in healthy subjects and seemed to be of little value for differentiating between healthy individuals and patients with functional dyspepsia.

Satiety and 24h diet-induced thermogenesis as related to macronutrient composition

In a 6 months multi-centre study on the effects of fat intake, we showed that consumption of reduced fat products prevented weight gain. Next to passive over-consumption of fat, a low satiating effect may be due to its delayed oxidation. Macronutrients have different satiating efficacies and different priorities in oxidation, namely: protein, carbohydrate and fat. In a 24 h respiration chamber study we showed a higher satiety and a higher diet-induced thermogenesis (DIT) on a high protein high carbohydrate diet than on a high fat diet. The differences in satiety between the two diets was correlated to the differences in DIT between the two diets (r=0.8; p < 0.01). Thus, satiety was related to a metabolic component, namely diet-induced thermogenesis. Therefore, a diet with a higher fat content may lead to a positive energy balance, due to energy intake as well as energy expenditure. Including alcohol makes the energy balance even more positive. Keywords: Energy-expenditure, humans, obesity, satiety, substrate-oxidation

Effect of habitual dietary-protein intake on appetite and satiety

To investigate whether appetite response to a high-protein test meal varies inversely with habitual protein intake, the satiating influence of dietary protein was investigated in 14 subjects. Subjects were divided into two groups on the basis of habitual protein intake: means of 1·0g/kg/day (LP) and 1·4g/kg/day (HP). Appetite was assessed in each group following high protein meals (test a). A 13-day period of dietary manipulation increased differences in protein intake between groups to a mean of 0·75g/kg/day (LP) and 1·96g/kg/day (HP) and a second satiety test (b) was performed. A third test (c) was performed in the HP group after protein intakes were reduced for 2 days to a mean of 0·85g/kg/day. Differences in satiety were most marked, with significant correlations between satiety after the three meals and daily protein intake (r=−0·36). LP satiety was significantly greater than HP after test b (p=0·025), and approached significance when satiety response during LPb was compared with HPc (p=0·07). Results support the hypothesis that the satiating effect of dietary protein varies inversely with habitual protein intake.

Effect of the energy density and volume of high carbohydrate meals on short term satiety in preschool children.

To investigate the effect of energy density and food volume intakes in one meal (lunch-time) on food and energy intakes in the subsequent meal (tea-time). During lunch, two meals with different energy densities (1.26 and 0.69 kcal/g) were offered to preschool children using normal foods and maintaining a similar energy, carbohydrate, and fat intakes. In the subsequent meal a varied type of high acceptability foods were served in higher amounts than those that children usually consume. A day care center where the children were fed during lunch-time and tea-time. Two hundred and thirty-four normal preschool children, 108 males and 126 females, according to the weight for height index using the NCHS standards. Chemical analysis of the meals served using the AOAC methods and determination of food and energy intakes by differential weighing of the foods. The preschool children had a similar energy intake at lunch but a significantly higher food intake when they consumed the meal with the lower energy density (313 vs. 290.7 kcal) (P = 0.001). There were no differences in the food intakes at the subsequent meal times. The results of this present work demonstrate that under the conditions of the study, there is an inverse relationship between the energy density of the meals consumed at the first meal-time and the energy intakes at the subsequent meal in normal preschool children; and a direct relationship with the short-term satiety. It is possible that differences in satiety reflect, in part, effects from the characteristics of the normal food used in the dietary treatments. These conclusions suggest that future research must be carried out in order to investigate the separate effects of food and the dietary variables commonly used in the studies of food and energy regulations in humans.

Effect of pectin on satiety in healthy US Army adults.

We tested the hypothesis that pectin, a source of dietary fiber that delays gastric emptying, increases satiety.Male (n = 49) and female (n = 25) US Army employees within normal weight limits were fasted overnight then fed 448 mL of orange juice on 2 separate days followed 4 hours later by 0.473 L of ice cream. On 1 of the 2 days, 5, 10, 15 or 20 g of pectin was mixed with the orange juice. Satiety was measured on a visual analog scale before and at 0, 1, 2, 3 and 4 hours after orange juice and at 0, 30 and 60 minutes after ice cream. Multivariate ANOVA was used to examine satiety as a function of beverage (orange juice vs. orange juice plus pectin), time and pectin dose.There were significant differences in satiety as a function of beverage (p < 0.001) and time (p < 0.001) but not pectin dose (p = 0.121). The effect lasted up to 4 hours after ingesting pectin and orange juice and for 60 minutes after a second meal consisting of ice cream.Pectin in doses as small as 5 g mixed with orange juice increases satiety and can aid in a program to reduce weight by limiting food intake.

A Comparison of the Effects of Beef, Chicken and Fish Protein on Satiety and Amino Acid Profiles in Lean Male Subjects

We compared postprandial satiety and plasma amino acid, insulin, and glucose concentrations in six lean male subjects after the ingestion of three types of protein (beef, chicken and fish). Satiety was greater after the fish meal (P < 0.01). The observed difference in satiety could be correlated with two of the putative satiety signals measured in this study: 1) serotoninergic activity, due to differences observed in the postprandial tryptophan to large neutral amino acid ratio; and 2) digestibility, reflected in the significantly (P < 0.05) longer time it took for the plasma amino acid concentrations to peak after the fish meal. Correlations between dietary and plasma amino acid concentrations were determined and good correlations (r = 0.90) were observed for essential amino acids other than lysine and tryptophan. There were no differences in insulin or glucose concentrations in subjects after consuming each of the three meals. Whether other differences that we observed, such as increased concentrations of taurine and methionine following the fish meal, had any effect on satiety or were of biological significance is not known.