Differences In Plant Size Research Articles

Matas de gramíneas como refugios de artrópodos invernantes en agroecosistemas pampeanos: efectos del tamaño, del agrupamiento y de la arquitectura de las plantas

Perennial grasses are used as overwintering shelters by several arthropod species in the Pampa region. Plant size, structure, and clustering may condition habitat or shelter availability, and therefore their selection by overwintering arthropods. We analyzed the influence of clustering, size and architecture modification of Schizachyrium condensatum plants on the abundance and richness of these arthropods dwelling inside these plants. We set up plants of different sizes, from large (110 cm tall) to small (70 cm tall), along the edge of a field crop in the Rolling Pampas. They were planted isolated or in groups of five plants, with or without architecture modification (open or closed). After the winter season, overwintering arthropods were removed and the abundance and richness of morphospecies were calculated for each plant. Two predator species from the Coccinellidae family, Hippodamia convergens and Coccinella ancoralis, represented almost 90% of total abundance in large, grouped and closed plants. In large closed plants there was almost twice the abundance of arthropods than in large open plants. In small plants there was no effect due to architecture. In small plants there was similar arthropod richness between isolated and grouped plants, whereas in large plants there was almost twice the species in grouped than in isolated plants. Our results show that small plant size, as well as opening and isolation for large plants, negatively affected the choice of wintering sites for coccinelids. Therefore, we highlight the importance of conserving perennial grassesin the edges of agricultural areas as they allow the persistence of aphidofagous coccinelids in the surroundings of crop fields during wintering periods and thus contribute to the sustainability of the beneficial fauna.

Does the plant size–wage differential increase with tenure? Affirming evidence from German panel data

We show that the major part of the plant size–wage premium in Germany is reflected in different wage growth patterns in plants of different size. This is consistent with the hypothesis that large firms ‘produce’ more skilled workers over time.

Intraspecific variation in flowering phenology affects seed germinability in the forest herb Primula elatior

Background and aims – Phenological responses to environmental cues are known to be phylogenetically conserved across species, but the adaptive nature of phenological responses to the local environment within the populations of individual species needs further exploration. In temperate forests, the canopy green up timing is expected to act selectively upon the growth and flowering phenology of understorey plants. Methods – Here we quantified the variation in the flowering phenology of a forest herb growing in the understorey of early versus late leafing tree species and explored the effect of this variation on the germinability of its seeds. The flowering of individual plants was recorded in six populations at twelve time points in early spring. Germinability was tested in a lab germination experiment. The individual plants were visited again in a second growing season to quantify the variation in phenology between years. Key results – Variability between plants was found within populations rather than between populations or forest stands. Phenology was consistent across growing seasons with individuals flowering either early or late in both studied years (which was not simply due to differences in plant size). Early flowering individuals had a fitness advantage in the sense that they produced higher proportions of germinable seeds. Conclusions – We quantified phenological variation between the individuals of an understorey plant species relative to the canopy phenology and related this variation to fitness. While some interesting patterns emerged, fitness components other than seed germinability and the plant life stages following germination should be studied as well to understand the evolutionary significance of phenology in forest understorey plants.

Influence of Temperature, Low Nutrient Supply, and Soil Composition on Germination and the Growth of Sea Kale (Crambe maritima L.)

Sea kale (Crambe maritima L.) is a wild edible plant with forgotten and undiscovered potential as a field vegetable. Its natural habitat is gravel beaches in northern Europe and the Black Sea. Three experiments were conducted to find the effect of temperature on seed germination and to determine plant growth response to organic fertilizer and soil types. Germination rates were estimated at three temperatures. Plant growth responses were conducted with application of two fertilizer concentrations [15 and 30 kg plant-available nitrogen (PAN)/ha] and by using four distinct soil types. Seeds sown at 20 and 15 °C reached a significantly greater germination rate after 32 days (48.0% and 40.4%, respectively) than seeds sown at 10 °C (16.6%). The number of days when 50% of the seeds that germinated during the experiment had germinated (T50) were 12.0, 11.8, and 16.8 days for 20, 15, and 10 °C, respectively. Application of 15 or 30 kg·ha−1 PAN did not result in any significant differences in plant size or biomass within 2 months of growth in sandy loam, but substantial plant heterogeneity was observed. Soil composition had a significant effect (P ≤ 0.05) on plant biomass. Plants grown in fine or loamy sand had the greatest growth and biomass. Sea kale seems to have a potential to become a field vegetable, because it grows well on other soil types than gravel. However, domestication processes of the species are required to obtain homogenous plants for future propagation.

Demographic vulnerability in cliff-dwelling Sonchus species endemic to the western Mediterranean

Species of Sonchus section Pustulati (Sonchus masguindalii, Sonchus fragilis and Sonchus pustulatus) constitute a group of endemic cliff plants in the Mediterranean region, restricted to narrow non-overlapping areas within the Baetic–Rifan hotspot of plant species diversity. S. pustulatus occurs both in SE Spain and N Africa, whereas the other related species are exclusive to N Africa. We characterized all the extant populations of Sonchus species (section Pustulati) in 2008 by recording population size, demographic structure and reproductive success, and we estimated the population trends for the critically endangered Spanish S. pustulatus by repeating censuses in 2013. We also calculated the stochastic population growth rate (λS) and modelled future viability (PVA) of one of the Spanish S. pustulatus populations by using matrix models derived from detailed demographic monitoring over a six-year period (2003–2008).Population sizes ranged between 100 and 22,000 reproductive individuals. In spite of differences in plant size, population protection and anthropogenic disturbance, the life history stage structure of all populations was similar and characterized by a low abundance of seedlings and juveniles, suggesting low recruitment. The population growth rate of Spanish S. pustulatus populations ranged between 0.91 and 1.01, and the matrix model showed significant population decline (λS=0.9042; 95% CI: 0.9041–0.9043). The PVA projected that this population would shrink to a few individuals in approximately forty years under present conditions. Since high temperatures and drought negatively affected the dynamics of this population, ongoing climatic change will jeopardize its future persistence.

Reduced plant competition among kin can be explained by Jensen's inequality.

Plants often compete with closely related individuals due to limited dispersal, leading to two commonly invoked predictions on competitive outcomes. Kin selection, from evolutionary theory, predicts that competition between relatives will likely be weaker. The niche partitioning hypothesis, from ecological theory, predicts that competition between close relatives will likely be stronger. We tested for evidence consistent with either of these predictions by growing an annual legume in kin and nonkin groups in the greenhouse. We grew plant groups in treatments of symbiotic nitrogen fixing bacteria differing in strain identity and composition to determine if differences in the microbial environment can facilitate or obscure plant competition patterns consistent with kin selection or niche partitioning. Nonkin groups had lower fitness than expected, based on fitness estimates of the same genotypes grown among kin. Higher fitness among kin groups was observed in mixtures of N-fixing bacteria strains compared to single inoculations of bacteria strains present in the soil, which increased fitness differences between kin and nonkin groups. Lower fitness in nonkin groups was likely caused by increased competitive asymmetry in nonkin groups due to genetic differences in plant size combined with saturating relationships with plant size and fitness- i.e. Jensen's inequality. Our study suggests that microbial soil symbionts alter competitive dynamics among kin and nonkin. Our study also suggests that kin groups can have higher fitness, as predicted by kin selection theory, through a commonly heritable trait (plant size), without requiring kin recognition mechanisms.

Identification and preliminary evaluation of polychlorinated naphthalene emissions from hot dip galvanizing plants

Hot dip galvanizing (HDG) processes are sources of polychlorinated-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs). Close correlations have been found between the concentration of PCDD/Fs and polychlorinated naphthalenes (PCNs) that are produced and released during industrial thermal processes. We speculated, therefore, that HDG plants are potential PCN sources. In this preliminary study, PCNs were analyzed in solid residues, ash and precipitate from three HDG plants of different sizes. The total PCN concentrations (∑2–8PCNs) in the residue samples ranged from 60.3 to 226pgg−1. The PCN emission factors for the combined ash and precipitate residues from the HDG plants ranged from 75 to 178ngt−1 for the dichlorinated and octachlorinated naphthalenes. The preliminary results suggested that the HDG industry might not currently be a significant source of PCN emissions. The trichloronaphthalenes were the dominant homologs followed by the dichloronaphthalenes and the tetrachloronaphthalenes. The PCN congeners CN37/33/34, CN52/60, CN66/67, and CN73 dominated the tetrachlorinated, pentachlorinated, hexachlorinated, and heptachlorinated naphthalene homologs, respectively. The PCNs emitted from the HDG plants had similar homolog distributions and congener profiles to the PCNs emitted from combustion plants and other metallurgical processes. The identification and preliminary evaluation of PCN emissions from HDG plants presented here will help in the prioritization of measures for controlling PCN emissions from industrial sources.

Little evidence for release from herbivores as a driver of plant invasiveness from a multi‐species herbivore‐removal experiment

Enemy release is frequently posed as a main driver of invasiveness of alien species. However, an experimental multi‐species test examining performance and herbivory of invasive alien, non‐invasive alien and native plant species in the presence and absence of natural enemies is lacking. In a common garden experiment in Switzerland, we manipulated exposure of seven alien invasive, eight alien non‐invasive and fourteen native species from six taxonomic groups to natural enemies (invertebrate herbivores), by applying a pesticide treatment under two different nutrient levels. We assessed biomass production, herbivore damage and the major herbivore taxa on plants. Across all species, plants gained significantly greater biomass under pesticide treatment. However, invasive, non‐invasive and native species did not differ in their biomass response to pesticide treatment at either nutrient level. The proportion of leaves damaged on invasive species was significantly lower compared to native species, but not when compared to non‐invasive species. However, the difference was lost when plant size was accounted for. There were no differences between invasive, non‐invasive and native species in herbivore abundance. Our study offers little support for invertebrate herbivore release as a driver of plant invasiveness, but suggests that future enemy release studies should account for differences in plant size among species.

Fungal mutualists enhance growth and phytochemical content in Echinacea purpurea

An emerging paradigm in sustainable biotechnique is the use of mutualists to enhance plant growth and secondary metabolism. Our objective was to determine impact of two groups of fungal mutualists on growth and phytochemistry of Echinacea purpurea. Growth, development, and phytochemical concentration were measured in greenhouse-grown 12-week-old plants colonized by arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) (Rhizophagus intraradices and Gigaspora margarita) or the endophytic entomopathogen, Beauveria bassiana. In one experiment, all measured growth parameters were increased in mycorrhizal plants. Biomass of AMF-colonized plants was over 13-fold greater than non-mycorrhizal controls receiving the same levels of phosphorous, and over 4-fold greater than non-mycorrhizal controls given additional phosphorous. Endophytic colonization by B. bassiana had minor effects on growth. Colonization by AMF and B. bassiana alone or in combination altered concentrations of phytochemicals (pigments, polyphenolics, alkylamides, and terpenes). Mycorrhizal plants produced up to 4.6-fold higher concentration of polyphenolics. Specific alkylamides increased 1.7 fold in plants colonized only with B. bassiana and up to a 2.4-fold increase in plants colonized by both mutualists. Changes in other phytochemical classes were related to differences in plant size induced by AMF. Phytochemical content (concentration × biomass) was increased up to 30-fold in mycorrhizal plants. Phytochemical relationships to plant biomass were confirmed in a second experiment in which non-mycorrhizal plants were fertilized to produce biomass equivalent to that of mycorrhizal plants. Based on this study, mycorrhizal colonization of E. purpurea enhances phytochemical content; this has major implications for the natural product industries and growers of E. purpurea.

Big plants — Do they affect neighbourhood species richness and composition in herbaceous vegetation?

According to traditional theory, success in competition between plant species generally involves a ‘size-advantage’. We predicted therefore that plants with larger body size should impose greater limits on the number of species — especially relatively small ones — that can reside within their immediate neighbourhoods. Species composition was compared within local neighbourhoods surrounding target plants of different sizes belonging to one of the largest herbaceous species found within old-field vegetation in eastern Ontario Canada — Centaurea jacea. Resident species density was generally greater within immediate ‘inner’ target neighbourhoods than within adjacent circular ‘outer’ neighbourhoods, and mean body size of resident neighbour species was unrelated to increases in target plant size. As target plant size increased, the proportion of resident neighbour species that were reproductive increased. Relatively big plants of C. jacea do not limit the number or the proportion of reproductive species that can coexist within their immediate neighbourhoods, nor do they cause local exclusion of relatively small species from these neighbourhoods. These results fail to support the ‘size-advantage’ hypothesis and are more consistent with the ‘reproductive economy advantage’ hypothesis: success under intense competition is promoted by capacity to recruit offspring that — despite severe suppression — are able to reach their minimum body size needed for reproduction, and hence produce grand-offspring for the next generation. The latter is facilitated by a relatively small minimum reproductive threshold size, which is generally negatively correlated with a relatively large maximum potential body size.

Effects of drought stress during flowering of two pot-grown blackcurrant (Ribes nigrum L.) cultivars

The drought stress tolerance of two blackcurrant cultivars (Ribes nigrum L., ‘Narve Viking’ and ‘Ben Gairn’) during the flowering period and their ability to recover following drought stress were studied by examining the effects of drought stress on growth and various physiological traits. The experiment was conducted under greenhouse conditions, and plants were either fully irrigated (FI), with a volume of water replacing the previous day's evapotranspiration, or non-irrigated (NI) for 12 days. Hereafter irrigation was continued (FI) or resumed (NI) to allow for 17 days of recovery.Drought stress reduced the accumulated evapotranspiration of both cultivars mainly due to stomatal closure and a reduced leaf area. Stomata were more open in the morning than at midday, which could be attributed to an increase in vapour pressure deficit (VPD) at midday. Moreover, stomatal conductance (gs) varied between days of treatment, possibly due to differences in air temperature and VPD. Drought stress reduced the leaf water potential (ψl), osmotic potential (ψπ) and turgor potential (ψp) of both cultivars, but more so in ‘Narve Viking’ than in ‘Ben Gairn’, indicating that ‘Narve Viking’ was most affected by drought stress. In both cultivars osmotic adjustment only slightly contributed to turgor maintenance.In both cultivars, the drought stress significantly reduced leaf and flower dry weight and there was no regrowth of flowers after 17 days of recovery. In ‘Ben Gairn’ the aerial biomass accumulation after 12 days of drought stress was less reduced and regrowth of roots during the recovery phase was faster than in ‘Narve Viking’. This indicates that ‘Ben Gairn’ was more tolerant of drought stress and recovered better than ‘Narve Viking’ but may also to some extent reflect differences in plant size. However, a slow regrowth of roots and high N uptake activity of drought stressed ‘Narve Viking’ at the end of the recovery phase indicated that this cultivar was slowly recovering too.The presented results stress the importance of installing irrigation systems in blackcurrant orchards during flowering and can assist the selection of drought stress tolerant cultivars in blackcurrant breeding programs.

Performance prediction of 60 kWp PV power plant in an educational institute

Due to government initiatives, many solar photovoltaic (PV) power plants of different sizes will be set up in India in the near future. In this context, the performance of a 60 kWp PV power plant is discussed in this paper which is installed at National Institute of Technology (a centrally funded institute of Government of India), Agartala, located in a small state (Tripura) of North East India where supply of grid electricity is a critical issue. This article examines the various parameters for performance prediction of this solar power plant.

Plant Ontogeny, Spatial Distance, and Soil Type Influence Patterns of Relatedness in a Common Amazonian Tree

The formation of spatial genetic structure (SGS) may originate from different patterns of seed deposition in the landscape, and is mostly determined by seed dispersal limitation. After dispersal, mechanisms such as filtering by environmental factors or attack by herbivores/pathogens throughout plant development stages, and potentially either disrupt or intensify SGS patterns. We investigated how the genotype of Protium subserratum (Burseraceae), a common tree species in the Ducke Reserve, Brazil, is distributed across the landscape. We used seven microsatellite markers to assess the SGS among plants at different life stages and in different environments. By quantifying the patterns of relatedness among plants of different sizes, we inferred the ontogenetic stage in which SGS changes occurred, and compared these effects across soil types. Relatedness among seedlings decreased when distance between seedlings increased, especially for the youngest seedlings. However, this trend was not continued by older plants, as relatedness values were higher among neighboring individuals of the juvenile and adult size class. Contrasting relatedness patterns between seedlings and larger individuals suggests a trade-off between the negative effects of being near closely-related adults (e.g. due to herbivore and pathogen attack) and the advantage of being in a site favorable to establishment. We also found that soil texture strongly influenced density-dependence patterns, as young seedlings in clay soils were more related to each other than were seedlings in bottomland sandy soils, suggesting that the mechanisms that create and maintain patterns of SGS within a population may interact with environmental heterogeneity.

SchussenAktivplus: reduction of micropollutants and of potentially pathogenic bacteria for further water quality improvement of the river Schussen, a tributary of Lake Constance, Germany

The project focuses on the efficiency of combined technologies to reduce the release of micropollutants and bacteria into surface waters via sewage treatment plants of different size and via stormwater overflow basins of different types. As a model river in a highly populated catchment area, the river Schussen and, as a control, the river Argen, two tributaries of Lake Constance, Southern Germany, are under investigation in this project. The efficiency of the different cleaning technologies is monitored by a wide range of exposure and effect analyses including chemical and microbiological techniques as well as effect studies ranging from molecules to communities.

Soybean cultivar selection for Bioregenerative Life Support Systems (BLSSs) – Hydroponic cultivation

Four soybean cultivars (‘Atlantic’, ‘Cresir’, ‘Pr91m10’ and ‘Regir’), selected through a theoretical procedure as suitable for cultivation in BLSS, were evaluated in terms of growth and production. Germination percentage and Mean Germination Time (MGT) were measured. Plants were cultivated in a growth chamber equipped with a recirculating hydroponic system (Nutrient Film Technique). Cultivation was performed under controlled environmental conditions (12h photoperiod, light intensity 350μmolm−2s−1, temperature regime 26/20°C light/dark, relative humidity 65–75%). Fertigation was performed with a standard Hoagland solution, modified for soybean specific requirements, and EC and pH were kept at 2.0dSm−1 and 5.5 respectively.The percentage of germination was high (from 86.9% in ‘Cresir’ to 96.8% in ‘Regir’)and the MGT was similar for all the cultivars (4.3 days). The growing cycle lasted from 114 in ‘Cresir’ to 133 days on average in the other cultivars. Differences in plant size were recorded, with ‘Pr91m10’ plants being the shortest (58 vs 106cm). Cultivars did not differ significantly in seed yield (12gplant−1) and in non edible biomass (waste), water consumption and biomass conversion efficiency (water, radiation and acid use indexes). ‘Pr91m10’ showed the highest protein content in the seeds (35.6% vs 33.3% on average in the other cultivars).Results from the cultivation experiment showed good performances of the four cultivars in hydroponics. The overall analysis suggests that ‘Pr91m10’ could be the best candidate for the cultivation in a BLSS, coupling the small plant size and the good yield with high resource use efficiency and good seed quality.

Understanding the pitfalls of CCS cost estimates

This paper reviews and compares the prevailing methods, metrics and assumptions underlying cost estimates for CO2 capture and storage (CCS) technologies applied to fossil fuel power plants. This assessment reveals a number of significant differences and inconsistencies across different studies, not only in key technical, economic and financial assumptions related to the cost of a CCS project (such as differences in plant size, fuel type, capacity factor, and cost of capital) but also in the underlying methods and cost elements that are included (or excluded) in a particular study (such as the omission of certain “owner's” costs or the cost of transport and storage). Such differences often are not apparent in the cost results that are reported publicly or in the technical literature. In other cases, measures that have very different meanings (such as the costs of CO2 avoided, CO2 captured and CO2 abated) are all reported in similar units of “dollars per ton CO2”. As a consequence, there is likely to be some degree confusion, misunderstanding and possible mis-representation of CCS costs. Given the widespread interest in the cost of CCS and the potential for lower-cost CO2 capture technology, methods to improve the consistency and transparency of CCS cost estimates are needed.

Variation in monsoon precipitation drives spatial and temporal patterns of Larrea tridentata growth in the Sonoran Desert

Summary 1. Broad-scale patterns of above-ground net primary production (ANPP) are closely coupled to climate features, particularly the distribution and magnitude of rainfall. In arid and semi-arid regions, however, the precipitation regime, together with local geomorphology and plant life history traits, combine to regulate soil water availability and patterns of growth, complicating simple correlations with climatic variables. 2. To better understand the drivers of plant growth in desert ecosystems, we characterized the rates and spatial heterogeneity of stem elongation by the dominant perennial shrub, creosote bush (Larrea tridentata) in the northern Sonoran Desert of Arizona (USA). Estimates of stem growth were made over a 5-year period (2006–2010) from 60 plots at 15 sites spanning c. 120 km across the Central Arizona–Phoenix (CAP) Long-term Ecological Research (LTER) area. 3. We observed both the highest and lowest rates of stem growth during summer, and these patterns were related to the amount of monsoon rainfall and local rates of water infiltration. The relationship between growth and precipitation in the summer was nonlinear, with rates increasing more than eightfold at plots receiving more than 100 mm of seasonal rainfall. Conversely, growth during the winter/spring was intermediate in magnitude, similar among years and poorly correlated with seasonal precipitation. 4. The spatial heterogeneity of stem growth also differed markedly between seasons and was greater both within and among sites during summer compared to winter/spring growing periods. At broad scales, spatial heterogeneity of shrub growth was correlated with seasonal changes in the spatial variability of rainfall across the study area. At small spatial scales, greater heterogeneity during the summer appears linked to local soil properties that influence infiltration and water availability following monsoon storms. 5. Overall, the strong, nonlinear growth response by L. tridentata to monsoon rainfall suggests that the recurrence interval of wet summer seasons is an important driver of ANPP for this long-lived shrub. More generally, our results illustrate how regional climate variability and local soil properties can interact to influence the rates and heterogeneity of desert plant growth at multiple scales.

Genetic Variability and Control of Nodal Root Angle in Sorghum

Sorghum [Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench] is a major dryland cereal crop in environments with low and unpredictable rainfall. Root angle at the seedling stage can potentially influence root architecture and hence adaptation to drought. The aims of this study were to investigate the extent of genetic variation in nodal root angle of sorghum and to quantify the general combining ability (GCA) and specific combining ability (SCA) for the trait. A diverse range of inbred lines and hybrids was grown in custom‐made containers in a glasshouse. Plants were harvested when six leaves had fully expanded and encompassing angle of first flush of nodal roots (relative to vertical), leaf area, and root and shoot dry weight were determined for each plant. Nodal root angle ranged from 15 to 50° for inbred lines and 14 to 43° for hybrids and had a moderately high heritability (47%) in inbred lines. However, significant interaction between male and female parents in hybrids indicated significant SCA. Variation in nodal root angle was independent of variation in plant size (shoot and root weight and leaf area). Variability in plant size among hybrids was associated with the female parent (p < 0.001) and resulted in significant GCA. Screening and selection for nodal root angle should not be affected by potential differences in plant size between inbred lines and hybrids, although the significant SCA would limit predictability of root angle in hybrids based on the root angle of the parental inbred lines.

Feasibility of small-scale gas engine-based residential cogeneration in Spain

Nowadays all countries are developing their own policies to promote cogeneration in the small-scale residential sector. In this paper the feasibility of small-scale gas engine-based residential cogeneration plants under the current Spanish regulation is studied. A unitary thermal load profile is obtained to characterised the thermal demand of residential applications in Spain. This unitary profile is used to analyse the potential of cogeneration in the small-scale range of powers (100–1000 kW). A complete characterisation of the gas fuelled engines in the market is performed and subsequently used to evaluate the economic feasibility within the selected range by means of a self-tailored simulation model. It is underlined how the thermal storage is a crucial element that should be suitably included in a residential cogeneration plant and the distortions that the actual pricing system adds to the profitability of residential plants of different sizes. Finally a sensibility study is carried out in order to evaluate how the Spanish regulation is able to deal with future variations in the energy prices. It is shown that a rise in the price of the natural gas increases the current feasibility of a plant while a decrease descends the profitability.

Effect of Mid-Summer Haying on Growth and Reproduction in Prairie Forbs

Mid-summer haying is a common management practice for prairies; plant species could differ in the effect of haying on subsequent growth and reproduction. We examined the effect of haying on prairie species by performing a clipping experiment. For each of seven species, sixteen plants were chosen and half were randomly assigned to a clipping treatment and half to a control treatment. Experimental plants (and surrounding vegetation) in the clipped treatment were cut to a ten cm height in summer for two years. Measurements of plant height and the number of inflorescences were taken on all plants prior to clipping in June and in the fall each year. For many species, clipped plants were smaller than control plants in the fall after clipping. However, after overwintering, there were few significant differences in plant size or reproductive output between plants that were previously clipped and control plants. Some species, however, did show persistent effects of clipping. For example, both plant size and number of inflorescences were reduced by clipping in Lespedeza capitata. Similarly, clipped plants of Amorpha canescens had fewer inflorescences the year after clipping compared to control plants. Future studies should examine long-term effects of haying on plant growth and reproduction, and explore whether such effects depend on plant life forms or flowering phenologies.