Differences In Mothers Research Articles

Work/non-workday differences in mother, child, and mother–child morning cortisol in a sample of working mothers and their children

BackgroundMothers have been shown to have higher morning cortisol on days they go to work compared to non-workdays; however, it is unknown how maternal workday associates with child morning cortisol or the attunement of mother–child morning cortisol. AimsThis study examined the presence and stability of morning cortisol levels and slopes (i.e., cortisol awakening response or CAR) in a sample of 2–4year old children in out-of-home child care with working mothers. In addition, we examined the differential contributions of maternal workday on mother–child attunement in morning cortisol. MethodMother and child morning cortisol was sampled twice a day (awakening and 30min later) across four consecutive days (2 non-workdays; 2 workdays) among 47 working mothers and their young children. Mothers also reported on compliance with sampling procedures and provided demographic information. ResultsWhile children exhibited stability in cortisol levels, children's CARs were variable, with children's non-work CARs not predictive of work CARs. Similarly, a significant morning rise in cortisol was only found on workdays, not non-workdays. Overall, mothers had higher cortisol levels and steeper CARs than their children. Further, maternal workday moderated the attunement of mother–child morning cortisol, such that mothers and children had concordant cortisol levels on non-workdays, but discordant cortisol levels on workdays. ConclusionsMorning cortisol may be more variable in pre-school aged children than adults but may be similarly responsive to the social environment. Further, workday mornings may be a time of reduced mother–child cortisol attunement.

Mothers' Cognitive References to 2‐Year‐Olds Predict Theory of Mind at Ages 6 and 10

Mothers' mental-state references predict individual differences in preschoolers' false-belief (FB) understanding; less is known about the origins of corresponding variation in school-age children. To address this gap, 105 children completed observations with their mothers at child ages 2 and 6, three FB tasks and a verbal comprehension test at age 3, and five FB tasks at age 6. Seventy-seven of these children completed five Strange Stories at age 10. Individual differences in mothers' cognitive references at child age 2 predicted variation in children's FB understanding at age 6 and Strange Stories scores at age 10 (controlling for number of mothers' turns and children's mental-state references, verbal comprehension and FB understanding at age 3, and mothers' cognitive references at child age 6).

Father Input and Child Vocabulary Development: The Importance of Wh Questions and Clarification Requests

Individual differences in children's language skills have been shown to stem in part from variations in the quantity and quality of parent speech input. However, most research focuses on mothers' input whereas less is known about the effects of variability in father input. In this article, we review the relation between parent input and child language development with a focus on low-income families, and review general findings about similarities and differences in mother and father speech. Within this review, we highlight conversation-eliciting speech, such as wh questions and clarification requests, which occur, on average, more frequently in father input than mother input. Conversation-eliciting speech is challenging for 2-year-old children and has been shown in research with mothers to relate to child vocabulary development. We then report a study examining whether fathers' use of conversation-eliciting speech relates to children's developing vocabulary skills at 24 months of age within a sample of low-income African American families. Understanding that speech input varies among fathers, and specific strengths that fathers bring to interactions with their young children can help speech-language pathologists develop and implement more effective interventions.

Tandem mass spectrometric analysis of human milk triacylglycerols from normal weight and overweight mothers on different diets

The composition and structures of TAGs in the human milk from mothers with different food choices and prepregnancy body mass index were determined with two tandem mass spectrometric methods (negative APCI–MS/MS and positive UHPLC/ESI–MS/MS) at the infant’s age of three months. The normal weight mothers with recommended food choices had more 18:3n-3 and less 18:0 in their milk than normal weight mothers with non-recommended food choices. A significant difference between the normal weight mothers on the non-recommended food choices and the other groups was seen in acyl carbon number: number of double bond (ACN:DB)-groups 54:6, 54:5, 54:3 and 54:2. In ACN:DB 52:7 and 52:6 the two recommended food choices–groups differed significantly from the two non-recommended food choices–groups. The regioisomerism of TAGs varied little despite differences in mother’s weight and diet with sn-18:1-16:0-18:1 as the most prevalent regioisomer in the milk (13.8±2.7%). The results of this study highlight the importance of structure specific human milk substitutes and the careful selection of the MS/MS methods for analysis of mixtures of several isobaric TAGs.

Parental concerns about complementary feeding: differences according to interviews with mothers with children of 7 and 13 months of age

To investigate and analyze differences in parental concerns during earlier and later phases of complementary feeding. Eight focus group interviews were conducted with 45 mothers of children aged 7 or 13 months. Deductive and inductive coding procedures were applied in the analysis. There were marked differences in mothers' health concerns in early and in later phases of complementary feeding. In the early phase, feeding a child healthy food was an unquestioned and self-evident practice. The child's food was a specific category, separated from the rest of the family's food, and the mother's focus was on the immediate well-being and safety of the child. In the later phase, health concerns shifted towards a longer-term perspective, and the aim of integrating the child into the family's social world became as important as concerns about well-being and safety. Contested and partly contradictory practices resulted, including conscious acceptance of some intake of sugar and unhealthy fats. Perceived relevance of nutritional guidelines on complementary feeding was high in the early phase but declined later. Mothers' concerns and practices in the feeding of a young child vary considerably across the early and later phases of complementary feeding. This should be explored further and taken into consideration in the targeting and timing of dietary guideline communications.

Bereaved Jewish Mothers of Children Who Died of Cancer

Coping with grief after a child's death is a complex and dynamic process. The Two-Track Model of Bereavement, which served as the theoretical framework for this study, examines biopsychosocial reactions to bereavement (track I) and attachment to the deceased (track II). The objectives of this study were to identify differences in mothers' perceived functioning between bereaved mothers and mothers of children with cancer, describe mother-child relationships and relationship development over the course of illness and death, and describe the association between the 2 tracks. A quantitative cross-sectional study of 50 Jewish bereaved mothers and a matched comparison group of 50 Jewish mothers to children with cancer aged 6 to 18 years completed structured questionnaires. No difference was found between the groups in overall maternal functioning. Bereaved mothers keep a relationship with their deceased child. Among mothers of currently ill children, there was a difference in the mean score of the mother-child relationship with the child before and after the cancer diagnosis. A negative correlation was found between the bereaved mother's relationship with the deceased child and her functioning; this was not found in the comparison group. Mother-child relationships become closer following the cancer diagnosis and change further following the child's death. The relationship with the deceased child is an integral part of the bereaved mother's life and influences her functioning. Training programs for nurses need to be developed to help nurses be sensitive to maternal loss and grief and to incorporate the bereaved mother's relationship with her deceased child into interventions.

Interactions Between Turkish Mothers and Preschool Children With Autism

This study explored the relationship between Turkish mothers' style of interaction and the engagement of their preschool-aged children with autism. Data were collected from fifty mother-child dyads in which all children had diagnoses of autism. Video recordings of mother-child interaction were analyzed using the Turkish versions of the Maternal Behavior Rating Scale and the Child Behavior Rating Scale (O. Diken, 2009 ). Similar to mothers from Western countries, Turkish mothers tended to engage in highly directive interactions with their children. However, a cluster analysis revealed considerable variability in mothers' style of interaction. This included a directive nonengaged style, a directive/achievement-oriented style, and a responsive style of interaction. Children's level of engagement was associated with differences in mothers' style of interaction. Children were least engaged with directive/nonengaged mothers and most engaged with responsive mothers. However, children's engagement was only associated with their mothers' responsiveness, not with their directiveness. Results are discussed in terms of their implications for early intervention.

Consistency of trauma symptoms at home and in therapy for preschool children exposed to intimate partner violence.

The expression of posttraumatic stress symptoms during group therapy and how this might differ from the expression of those symptoms at home was evaluated in a group of preschool children exposed to intimate partner violence (IPV). The sample included 55 mother-child dyads. Reports of posttraumatic stress symptoms were collected from mothers and child therapists and compared in terms of the symptom subtypes that the child expressed at home and in therapy. The total number of posttraumatic stress symptoms that young children expressed at home and in group therapy did not differ. There was, however, a significant difference in mothers' and therapists' reports of physiological arousal symptoms, with mothers reporting more arousal symptoms than did the therapists. Additionally, higher levels of IPV exposure predicted higher levels of total posttraumatic stress symptoms. This study has important implications for researchers and clinicians, especially when considering the range of posttraumatic stress symptoms preschool children may present after exposure to IPV.

Adjustment Problems among Mothers of Children with and without Autism Spectrum Disorder

The present study compared adjustment problems in mothers of children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) with mothers having normal children. 132 mothers (122 mother from main study and 10 mothers from pilot study) of children with ASD (Clinical group, n=66) and mothers with normal children (Normal group, n= 66) were included in study. Mothers of ASD children were recruited from six different institutions for mentally challenged children. Mothers of normal children were taken from six mainstream schools. Data was collected by administering a Demographic Questionnaire, Bell's Adjustment Inventory and Self Report Questionnaires. ACross Sectional Research Design was used. Descriptive statistics, Independent sample t–test was used to analyze the data. Results showed that mothers of children with ASD reported greater Emotional Adjustment Problems, Health Adjustment Problems, and Social Adjustment Problems as compared to normal group. Conversely, there was no difference in mothers on Home Adjustment. These findings have implications for intervention with mothers of children with ASD. Future studies need to focus on maternal counseling that would help in decreasing their adjustment difficulties.

Mothers' and fathers' couple and family contextual influences, parent involvement, and school-age child attachment

Increasingly couples in two-parent families share the dual responsibilities of parenting and providing for their children financially. Parenting is embedded within and shaped by specific family contexts. This study examined 92 mothers' and fathers' responses on indices of couple and family contexts, parent involvement, and child-reported attachment to each parent. The results showed some differences in mothers' and fathers' perceptions of the couple and family contexts, and mothers reported greater involvement than fathers. Their children reported similar attachment internal working models of each parent. However, father–child attachment was more closely linked to couple and family contextual variables, while mother–child attachment was more closely linked to mother involvement. Parent interview data illustrate both individual and shared perspectives of family contexts, parent involvement, and parent responses to children's attachment needs.

Parent and child perspectives on mothering and fathering: the influence of ecocultural niches

This mixed-methods study examined differences in parent involvement, perceptions, practices, and context by parent gender, nationality, and education level. Mothers, fathers, and their school-age children participated at two sites: the Midwestern USA (n = 99) and urban Central Taiwan (n = 100). Parents completed questionnaires regarding their parenting context, perceptions, and involvement practices. Children completed a parenting dimensions measure and a qualitative semi-structured interview. Findings revealed differences in mothering and fathering across nearly all beliefs and involvement activities, as well as differences in parenting stress and use of social support. There were broad differences by nationality in parent beliefs and involvement. Differences by parent education level suggest that parents with a low level of education are less involved and have lower levels of motivation for involvement. Responses from child interviews clarified some of these differences and identified children's unique perspectives regarding parent involvement. These findings suggest that fathers and mothers support children's development in unique and complementary ways, but that parenting is embedded within ecocultural niches which are impacted by the cultural and socioeconomic context.

A face a mother could love: Depression-related maternal neural responses to infant emotion faces

Depressed mothers show negatively biased responses to their infants' emotional bids, perhaps due to faulty processing of infant cues. This study is the first to examine depression-related differences in mothers' neural response to their own infant's emotion faces, considering both effects of perinatal depression history and current depressive symptoms. Primiparous mothers (n = 22), half of whom had a history of major depressive episodes (with one episode occurring during pregnancy and/or postpartum), were exposed to images of their own and unfamiliar infants' joy and distress faces during functional neuroimaging. Group differences (depression vs. no-depression) and continuous effects of current depressive symptoms were tested in relation to neural response to own infant emotion faces. Compared to mothers with no psychiatric diagnoses, those with depression showed blunted responses to their own infant's distress faces in the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex. Mothers with higher levels of current symptomatology showed reduced responses to their own infant's joy faces in the orbitofrontal cortex and insula. Current symptomatology also predicted lower responses to own infant joy–distress in left-sided prefrontal and insula/striatal regions. These deficits in self-regulatory and motivational response circuits may help explain parenting difficulties in depressed mothers.

유아기 자녀에 대한 모친의 구강건강관리행위에 영향을 미치는 요인 연구

Objectives : This study were to find out differences in mother`s oral health knowledge and oral health care behaviors and to find out factors that affected mothers` oral health care behavior for their young children. Methods : The survey was carried out with questionnaire about personal factor, cognitive factor, psychological factor and behavioral factor to 227 mothers. They had children from 3 to 5 years. The collected data was analyzed by SPSS WIN 12.0. Results : There were statistically significant differences in oral health knowledges as mother`s educational background, importance of oral health, experience of oral health education, and oral health locus of control. There were statistically significant differences in mother`s oral health care behaviors as mother`s job, interest of oral health, importance of oral health, experience of oral health education, and oral health locus of control. And mother` oral health care behavior for herself, interest of oral health, and oral health locus of control were found as important variables in mothers`s oral health care behavior for their children. Conclusions : Mother`s oral health care behavior for herself was the powerful factor that affected mother`s oral health care behavior for her children.

Subcutaneous Body Fat in Pregnant New Zealand Women: Association with Wheeze in Their Infants at 18 Months

To investigate the association of subcutaneous body fat levels in pregnant women with wheezing in their 18 month old infants. A prospective study of European and Polynesian volunteers (n = 369) recruited from northern New Zealand were visited in months 4 and 7 of pregnancy when height, weight, and triceps, biceps and costal skinfolds were measured, and questionnaires determining personal details administered; and again visited 18 months after birth when infants were measured and questions on infant feeding and wheeze administered. At 18 months 32 % of infants had wheezed in the past 12 months. Increased wheeze was associated with maternal asthma, eczema or allergy (p = 0.001); receiving family welfare payments (p = 0.010); and being Polynesian (p = 0.021); while exclusive breastfeeding to 2 months (p = 0.045) was associated with decreased wheeze. Individual month 4 and month 7 mean triceps, biceps and costal skinfolds were all greater in mothers of wheezers compared to nonwheezers, biceps and costal skinfolds significantly so (p = 0.002, p = 0.005 at month 7). The sum of these skinfolds at month 4, at month 7, and the difference between these sums, were all significantly associated with increased risk of infant wheeze at 18 months when considered alone (p = 0.037, p = 0.001 and p = 0.015) or in combination. Prevalence of infant wheeze was 22.7 % for mothers with lower quartile month 7 skinfolds, compared to 45.0 % for mothers with upper quartile. After adjusting for significant covariates the difference in skinfolds had the strongest association (p = 0.003) followed by sum at month 4 (p = 0.074 or 0.003 depending on whether Polynesian ethnicity was included in the model). The sum of skinfolds declined between month 4 and month 7 in 34 % of women. Prevalence of wheeze was 19.2 % where the difference in mothers' skinfolds between month 4 and month 7 decreased by 10 mm or more and 41.7 % where the difference increased by 10 mm or more. Mean month 4 weights, BMI and sum of skinfolds were below average in the latter group. As the sum of month 4 or month 7 maternal skinfolds increased the prevalence of infant wheeze increased. In addition as the change in skinfolds between month 4 and month 7 became more positive the prevalence of infant wheeze increased. This study suggests for the first time that changes in subcutaneous fat during pregnancy are associated with prevalence of infant wheeze.

Nativity Differences in Mothers’ Health Behaviors

Nativity differences in birth outcomes in the United States are well documented, with more favorable outcomes among children of foreign-born parents than those of native-born parents. Using longitudinal data on mothers from the United States Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study ( N ~ 4,000) and the United Kingdom Millennium Cohort Study ( N ~ 15,000), the authors provide a comparative and longitudinal perspective on nativity differences in mothers’ health behaviors. First, the authors ask whether healthier behaviors observed among Hispanic immigrants in the United States extend to foreign-born mothers in the United Kingdom, including South Asian, black African and Caribbean, and East Asian immigrants. Second, the authors consider the persistence of differences throughout early childhood. The findings demonstrate healthier behaviors among foreign-born mothers in both the United States and the United Kingdom, including both socioeconomically disadvantaged and advantaged mothers. These differences are stable over early childhood, suggesting a “universality” of healthier behaviors among foreign-born mothers, spanning racial/ethnic and socioeconomic groups, time, and two different policy contexts.

The Influence of Family Reunification Services on Racial/Ethnic Disparities in Permanency Outcomes for Children in the Child Welfare System

This study examined racial/ethnic differences in mothers' use of court-mandated family reunification services, including parent training, substance abuse treatment, and mental health treatment; and the influence of these services on racial/ethnic disparities on two permanency outcomes: family reunification and length of time in the child welfare system. Methods included a retrospective design using in-depth case record review and administrative data (N = 403). Results indicated racial/ethnic differences in service use and permanency outcomes. Across racial/ethnic groups, substance abuse treatment was associated with a shorter length of time in the child welfare system. Implications for child welfare services among racially/ethnically diverse families are discussed.

Mothers' and Fathers' Internal State Language with Their Young Children: An Examination of Gender Differences During an Emotions Task

The current study examined gender differences in mothers' and fathers' internal state language (ISL), children's use of ISL, and whether ISL was related to parents' ratings of the children's social skills. Fifty‐seven (28 boys, 29 girls) toddler/preschool children (M age = 32.5 months, SD = 5.38 months) were observed separately with their mothers and fathers in their homes while they discussed pictures of children's facial expressions of emotions. Parents completed a questionnaire concerning their child's social–emotional behaviours (i.e. BASC‐2). Parents used more ISL with sons compared with daughters, and sons used more ISL with mothers than with fathers. No overall differences were found between mothers' and fathers' ISL. Children's social skills as rated by mothers were predicted by mothers' ISL comments, whereas children's social skills as rated by fathers were predicted by children's age and fathers' ISL clarifications. Implications and limitations of the study are discussed. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Evaluation of “The Incredible Years” in Sweden: The transferability of an American parent‐training program to Sweden

Structured parent training has been proven to be effective in reducing disruptive behavior problems (DBP) in children. Most of the programs that are used in Sweden have their origin in North America, and there is an ongoing debate over the transferability to Sweden of manual-based programs developed in other contexts. The goal of the present study was to study effectiveness of the Incredible Years parent-training program (IY), developed in the US, in regular clinical work in Sweden, using a randomized controlled design. Parents of 62 four to eight-year-old children diagnosed with Oppositional Defiant Disorder participated in the study. Parents of 38 children were assigned to parent training (PT) and 24 to a waiting list (WL). The results indicate that the IYS retains the positive effects on children's disruptive behavior problems when translated and transferred to Swedish. There was a statistically significant difference in reduction of DBP in children between the groups in favor of the PT. The improvement in the PT group was sustained at the one-year follow-up. The improvement also, at least to some extent, generalized over time to the school context. There was also a statistically significant difference in mothers' report of pre to post change in parenting alliance between the PT and WL groups. The IYS program was appreciated and well received by the participating mothers.

Ethnic differences in mother–infant language and gestural communications are associated with specific skills in infants

We examined gestural and verbal interactions in 226 mother-infant pairs from Mexican, Dominican, and African American backgrounds when infants were 14 months and 2 years of age, and related these interactions to infants' emerging skills. At both ages, dyads were video-recorded as they shared a wordless number book, a wordless emotion book, and beads and string. We coded mothers' and infants' gestures and language/vocalizations. Each maternal utterance was coded as referential (e.g. 'That's a bead') or regulatory (e.g. 'Put it there'). Mothers reported on infants' gestural, receptive, and productive vocabularies at 14 months, and infants were assessed on receptive language, expressive language, and action sequencing and imitation at 2 years of age. Mothers of the three ethnicities differed in their gesturing, distributions of the two types of language, and coupling of language and gestures. Mothers' ethnicity, language, and gestures were differentially associated with infants' 2-year skills. Mother-infant communicative interactions are foundational to infant learning and development, and ethnic differences in modes of early communication portend divergent pathways in the development of specific skills.

Measurement of Maternal Instrumental Support: Findings from Three Population-Based Cohort Studies

To advance the conceptualization and measurement of mother-reported instrumental support, the degree to which an individual receives assistance in the completion of daily life tasks. The psychometric properties of a 9-item instrumental support scale were evaluated using classical (descriptive statistics, factor analyses, evaluation of construct validity) and modern (Rasch modeling, differential item functioning) methods. Differences in perceived instrumental support were evaluated as a function of mothers' socio-demographic characteristics. Factor analytic and differential item functioning analyses provided support for two components of instrumental support, household and childcare assistance. Instrumental support is distinct from structural support and the quality of mothers' social relationships. Socio-demographic characteristics (e.g., marital status, education level, income) are associated with access to instrumental support. Differentiating appropriately between support subtypes may reveal important differences in mother's qualitative instrumental support experiences and facilitate effective targeting of social support interventions.