Diepkloof Rock Shelter Research Articles

Revisiting the current phyto-scape of Boomplaas Cave (South Africa) and the possible implications of this for past day-range foraging

ABSTRACT Boomplaas Cave in the Western Cape Province of South Africa is one of only a few African sites with inland archaeological deposits spanning Marine Isotope Stages 4–1. Work conducted half a century ago predicted Boomplaas to be a meagre plant-food location. We reassess this interpretation here by presenting updated lists of the current vegetation and foodplants growing within roughly a day’s foraging distance from the cave. By doing so, we increase the known foodplant species potentially available to Stone Age foragers by 356% and show that almost all the plant species/genera in the Boomplaas archaeobotanical assemblage still grow within a day’s range of the site. We present nutritional values for some of the plant foods, highlighting those richest in moisture, ash, protein, fat, fibre, carbohydrates and energy and suggesting that such foods may have been important staples in the dietary ecology of the Stone Age foragers who used the site. Lastly, we demonstrate that the Boomplaas Cave foodplant fitness landscape is relatively rich and varied compared to similar data from other Cape sites such as Klasies River Main Cave, Diepkloof Rock Shelter and Hollow Rock Shelter.

The driving force behind tool-stone selection in the African Middle Stone Age

In the Stone Age, the collection of specific rocks was the first step in tool making. Very little is known about the choices made during tool-stone acquisition. Were choices governed by the knowledge of, and need for, specific properties of stones? Or were the collected raw materials a mere by-product of the way people moved through the landscape? We investigate these questions in the Middle Stone Age (MSA) of southern Africa, analyzing the mechanical properties of tool-stones used at the site Diepkloof Rock Shelter. To understand knapping quality, we measure flaking predictability and introduce a physical model that allows calculating the relative force necessary to produce flakes from different rocks. To evaluate their quality as finished tools, we investigate their resistance during repeated use activities (scraping or cutting) and their strength during projectile impacts. Our findings explain tool-stone selection in two emblematic periods of the MSA, the Still Bay and Howiesons Poort, as being the result of a deep understanding of these mechanical properties. In both cases, people chose those rocks, among many others, that allowed the most advantageous trade-off between anticipated properties of finished tools and the ease of acquiring rocks and producing tools. The implications are an understanding of African MSA toolmakers as engineers who carefully weighed their choices taking into account workability and the quality of the tools they made.

Defining iron-bearing rock sources in compositional data statistical analysis for provenance studies: A case study from South Africa

In iron-bearing rock provenance researches the definition of what is a source vary from an author to another. Issues might occur when the sources are associated with complex weathering profiles. How may the definition of the source influence the results of provenance studies when different types of iron-bearing rocks are encountered within the same weathering profile? In order to deal with this research question, we used a geochemical dataset previously obtained from the study of the ochre geological collection collected around Diepkloof rock shelter, South Africa. We tested the efficiency of Linear Discriminant Analyses (LDA, supervised analysis) and Principal Component Analysis (PCA, non-supervised analysis) in source discrimination and in the attribution of archaeological pieces to the right source. Different assumptions were made: sources were defined by separating or grouping the different lithologies (shale and ferricrete) encountered at the same location. The results show that grouping the different lithologies allows a good attribution of the archaeological pieces to the source it comes from when elements positively correlated with iron are used in the analysis. Separating the different lithologies do not allow a rate of success in archaeological pieces attribution as high as when the lithologies are grouped together. This result might be explained by a highest number of samples that define a source when the different lithologies are grouped together. Further research should be considered in this direction in order to define if this is a general trend.

The Diepkloof Rock Shelter foodplant fitness landscape, Western Cape, South Africa

ABSTRACT This paper reports on, and supplies the checklists for, the known foodplant population currently growing around Diepkloof Rock Shelter, South Africa, within radii of ∼12.5 km, ∼35 km and ∼70 km. It demonstrates that many of the species identified from the shelter’s Middle Stone Age charcoal record still grow on the landscape today and that 33 of the ancient charcoal-identified species are historically known as foodplants in southern Africa. With this contribution the current foodplant species that could serve as dietary resources are extended to 81 within a day’s return trip (∼12.5 km) from the site, 158 within the ∼35 km radius and 170 on the greater foraging landscape extending up to ∼ 70 km from Diepkloof. Data are presented that indicate the proportional increases in plant growth forms and edible plant parts by extending foraging ranges. Initial interpretation of the data shows that foragers may have had adequate access to herbs and shrubs from which leafy vegetables and fruits can be collected, as well as hydrophytes (such as waterblommetjies) within a day’s return trip. To increase especially access to energy-rich corms and roots, they may have used additional/other camp sites or home bases to exploit their ∼35 km foraging range. By travelling over longer distances, access to grass grains that also serve as famine foods can be exponentially increased.

Bone histology of Neogene angulate tortoises (Testudines: Testudinidae) from South Africa: palaeobiological and skeletochronological implications.

Here we examine the tibial microstructure of modern and fossil angulate tortoises to assess the histology and growth from the late Miocene-early Pliocene, Pleistocene through to modern forms. The cross-sections of all the tibiae sampled revealed highly vascularized, uninterrupted, fibrolamellar bone tissue during early ontogeny, which suggests that early growth was fast. However, later in ontogeny, growth was slower, as indicated by the deposition of parallel-fibred bone tissue in the outer cortex, and even ceased periodically, as indicated by lines of arrested growth. Comparative analyses of the growth rates of the tortoises from different time periods showed that the tortoises from the late Miocene-early Pliocene Langebaanweg locality and from Diepkloof Rock Shelter had relatively slower growth rates under less optimal growth conditions. Additionally, these prehistoric specimens show extensive remodelling, and several generations of secondary osteons further suggest functional and/or metabolic stresses on the skeleton. Palaeoenvironmental reconstructions suggest that it was mostly cooler and drier with seasonal fluctuations in late Miocene-early Pliocene, and it is likely that Chersina responded to these conditions by having a lower rate of growth as compared with their modern counterparts, which thrive in the current prevailing more favourable Mediterranean type of climate.

Experimentation preceding innovation in a MIS5 Pre-Still Bay layer from Diepkloof Rock Shelter (South Africa): emerging technologies and symbols

In southern Africa, key technologies and symbolic behaviors develop as early as the later Middle Stone Age in MIS5. These innovations arise independently in various places, contexts and forms, until their full expression during the Still Bay and the Howiesons Poort. The Middle Stone Age sequence from Diepkloof Rock Shelter, on the West Coast of the region, preserves archaeological proxies that help unravelling the cultural processes at work. This unit yields one of the oldest abstract engraving so far discovered in Africa, in the form of a rhomboid marking on the cortical surface of an ungulate long bone shaft. The comprehensive analysis of the lithic artefacts and ochre pieces found in association with the engraved bone documents the transport of rocks over long distance (>20km), the heat treatment of silcrete, the coexistence of seven lithic reduction strategies (including the production of bladelets and the manufacture of unifacial and bifacial points), the use of adhesives and the processing of ochre. At Diepkloof, the appearance of engraving practices take place in a context that demonstrates a shift in rock procurement and a diversification in lithic reduction strategies, suggesting that these behavioral practices acted as a cultural answer to cope with new environmental and/or socioeconomic circumstances. We argue that the innovations later found during the Still Bay and the Howiesons Poort were already in the making during the MIS5 pre-Still Bay, though not all the benefits were yet taken advantage of by the populations.

Histological investigation of burnt bones: A case study of angulate tortoises from the archaeological site, Diepkloof Rock Shelter, Western Cape, South Africa

AbstractThe current study examined burnt and unburnt tibiae of angulate tortoises from the intermediate and late Howiesons Poort levels at Diepkloof Rock Shelter (DRS) of Western Cape, South Africa, to ascertain heat‐induced osteohistological changes. Three types of bone damage caused by fire were recognized: (a) external color change in the bones but otherwise consistent osteological and histological features to unburnt bones; (b) partially burned bones with osteological features obliterated, but histological details still preserved, and carbon inclusions visible along the bone margins and within pore spaces; and (c) completely burned bones with obliterated osteological features, but overall shape is maintained, and except for the presence of cracks and carbon accumulations within pore spaces and around the periosteal margin, histological features are evident. Comparisons with other studies of burnt bone suggest that the bones at DRS were subjected to high temperatures of about 600°C to 900°C. Despite exposure to fire, histological features were intact in all the bones, permitting life history deductions for these angulate tortoises. During early ontogeny, uninterrupted fibrolamellar bone tissue (indicative of rapid growth rates) was deposited, whereas later in ontogeny, slowly formed parallel‐fibered bone tissue formed and growth ceased periodically. A minimum age of 10 years was deduced for two individuals, and closely spaced growth marks suggest that the sexual maturity was attained at 7–8 years. Based on the comparisons with modern angulate tortoises, it appears that DRS tortoises had slower growth rates, suggesting less optimal environmental conditions for growth prevailed at the time.

Invasive and Non-Invasive Analyses of Ochre and Iron-Based Pigment Raw Materials: A Methodological Perspective

Naturally occurring and deeply coloured iron-bearing materials were exploited very early on by human populations. The characterization of these materials has proven useful for addressing several archaeological issues, such as the study of technical behaviors, group mobility, and the reconstruction of cultural dynamics. However, this work poses some critical methodological questions. In this paper, we will review ochre studies by focusing on the analytical methods employed, the limits of non-invasive methods, as well as examples of some quality research addressing specific issues (raw material selection and provenience, heat treatment). We will then present a methodological approach that aims to identify the instrumental limits and the post-depositional alterations that significantly impact the results of the non-invasive analysis of cohesive ochre fragments from Diepkloof rock Shelter, South Africa. We used ochre materials recuperated in both archaeological and geological contexts, and we compared non-invasive surface analyses by XRD, scanning electron microscopy coupled with dispersive X-ray spectrometry (SEM-EDXS), and particle-induced X-ray emission (PIXE) with invasive analysis of powder pellets and sections from the same samples. We conclude that non-invasive SEM-EDXS and PIXE analyses provide non-representative results when the number of measurements is too low and that post-depositional alterations cause significant changes in the mineralogical and major element composition at the surface of archaeological pieces. Such biases, now identified, must be taken into account in future studies in order to propose a rigorous framework for developing archaeological inferences.

Human exploitation of nocturnal felines at Diepkloof Rock Shelter provides further evidence for symbolic behaviours during the Middle Stone Age

Within the animal kingdom, carnivores occupied a unique place in prehistoric societies. At times predators or competitors for resources and shelters, anthropogenic traces of their exploitation, often for non-nutritional purposes, permeate the archaeological record. Scarce but spectacular depictions in Palaeolithic art confirm peoples’ fascination with carnivores. In contrast with the European record, research on hominin/carnivore interactions in Africa has primarily revolved around the hunting or scavenging debate amongst early hominins. As such, the available information on the role of carnivores in Anatomically Modern Humans’ economic and cultural systems is limited. Here, we illustrate a particular relationship between humans and carnivores during the MIS5-4 Still Bay and Howiesons Poort techno-complexes at Diepkloof Rock Shelter, South Africa. The recovery of numerous felid remains, including cut-marked phalanges, tarsals and metapodials, constitutes direct evidence for carnivore skinning and, presumably, pelt use in the southern African Middle Stone Age. Carnivore exploitation at the site seems to have focused specifically on nocturnal, solitary and dangerous felines. The lines of evidence presented here suggest the capture and fur use of those felines in the context of highly codified and symbolically loaded cultural traditions.

The evolution of early symbolic behavior in Homo sapiens

How did human symbolic behavior evolve? Dating up to about 100,000 y ago, the engraved ochre and ostrich eggshell fragments from the South African Blombos Cave and Diepkloof Rock Shelter provide a unique window into presumed early symbolic traditions of Homo sapiens and how they evolved over a period of more than 30,000 y. Using the engravings as stimuli, we report five experiments which suggest that the engravings evolved adaptively, becoming better-suited for human perception and cognition. More specifically, they became more salient, memorable, reproducible, and expressive of style and human intent. However, they did not become more discriminable over time between or within the two archeological sites. Our observations provide support for an account of the Blombos and Diepkloof engravings as decorations and as socially transmitted cultural traditions. By contrast, there was no clear indication that they served as denotational symbolic signs. Our findings have broad implications for our understanding of early symbolic communication and cognition in H. sapiens.

‘Simple’ surface-fire heat treatment significantly improves silcrete flake quality and flaking efficiency

Intentional stone heat treatment is a key marker for prehistoric behavioural variability. Yet, the relationship between differences in heat-treatment strategies and variations in stone tool-making processes remains heavily debated and poorly understood. We report on two experiments testing wood fuels and heating strategies applied to silcrete nodules from ~60 km south of Diepkloof Rock shelter in South Africa with early evidence for intentional silcrete heat treatment. We flaked the heated silcrete nodules to maximize miniaturized flake production. The resulting cores and flakes were compared in terms of their utility (flake cutting edge to mass) and cutting edge quality (cutting edge angles) in addition to quantifying woody residues and heat induced fracture rates. Our results show that ‘simpler’ surface-fire heat treatment strategies provide significant increases in miniaturized core utility and flake quality over unheated silcrete nodules. Some of these effects were obtained without more specialized knowledge than is required to maintain fires for cooking and other utilitarian purposes. Our results show that rapidly heating silcrete to modify rocks for miniaturized stone tool production is efficient at relatively low levels of technological investment.

New data on avifaunal remains associated with the Middle Stone Age layers from Diepkloof Rock Shelter, Western Cape, South Africa

New bird remains were identified in the faunal assemblage recovered from the Middle Stone Age layers of Diepkloof Rock Shelter in the Western Cape Province of South Africa. The bird assemblage, while small, is composed of 12 distinct taxa, whose presence is linked to (1) the recovery of the material within a large rock shelter offering various roosting and/or nesting places (passerines and birds of prey such as Verreaux's eagle); the proximity of (2) the Verlorenvlei River (heron, white-breasted cormorant and African swamphen) and (3) the Atlantic Ocean coastline (African penguin and Cape cormorant). The occurrence of the coastal birds in the sequence seems to be stratigraphically consistent with other lines of evidence suggesting occasional human visits to the coast and correlates with putative periods of higher sea level and associated closer proximity of the shelter to the coastline (i.e. during the interglacial Marine Isotopic Stages 5 and 3). The taphonomic analysis shows a weak anthropogenic signal and suggests, rather, a primarily natural origin for most of the bird remains, possibly partly accumulated by a large raptor such as a Verreaux's eagle. By comparing data from Diepkloof Rock Shelter with data from Sibudu Cave, another large rock shelter located in a different part of South Africa but where the same techno-complexes have been recognized -namely the Still Bay and Howiesons Poort-, I touch on the possible influence of environmental and geographical factors on animal exploitation variability amongst late Pleistocene hunters-gatherers.

Investigation of organic matter and biomarkers from Diepkloof Rock Shelter, South Africa: Insights into Middle Stone Age site usage and palaeoclimate

Diepkloof Rock Shelter (DRS) represents a site of major interest for reconstructing early human behaviours during the Middle Stone Age (MSA). Rock shelters such as DRS also potentially preserve information concerning the environmental context for such behaviours. In this respect the organic matter composition of rock shelter sediments has rarely been investigated in detail, particularly at the molecular level. Here, we used pyrolysis-gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (py-GC/MS) to systematically assess the organic matter composition of bulk sediments within the MSA and Later Stone Age (LSA) sequence at DRS. From this we sought to gain insights into site usage, taphonomy and burning practices. Additionally, we analysed the chain length distribution of leaf-wax n-alkanes as well as their hydrogen and carbon isotopic compositions (δDwax and δ13Cwax) to investigate their potential as hydroclimate and vegetation indicators. This constitutes the first leaf-wax isotopic data in a terrestrial context of this antiquity in South Africa.Py-GC/MS shows a dichotomy between stratigraphic units (SUs) of high organic matter content, producing a range of pyrolysis products, including homologous series of long chain n-alkene/n-alkane doublets and alkyl-nitriles, and SUs of low organic matter content, dominated by aromatic, heterocyclic N and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) pyrolysis products; typical molecular burning products. Several SUs of the Intermediate Howiesons Poort interval exhibit the latter composition, consistent with micromorphological evidence.δ13Cwax remains stable throughout the MSA, but leaf-wax n-alkane chain length and δDwax increase during the Late Howiesons Poort interval. Comparison with such patterns in modern plants in the region suggests this represents a shift towards the input of more arid-adapted vegetation into the shelter, driven either by aridification at the site locale or a change in selection practices. Our results suggest that these techniques have further potential in southern Africa and globally at sites where organic matter preservation is high.

Single-grain OSL chronologies for the Still Bay and Howieson's Poort industries and the transition between them: Further analyses and statistical modelling

The chronology of the Still Bay (SB) and Howieson's Poort (HP) lithic industries remains an issue of keen interest because of the central role of these two phases of technological and behavioural innovation within the Middle Stone Age of southern Africa. Several dating studies have been conducted on SB and HP sites, including a pair published by the present authors and our colleagues in 2008 and 2013. These reported the results of systematically applying single-grain optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) dating procedures to 10 sites in South Africa, Lesotho and Namibia to constrain the timing of the start and end of the SB and HP and reveal the existence of a gap of several millennia between them. Alternative ages for these two industries have since been proposed by others for one of these South African sites (Diepkloof Rockshelter) and some concerns have been raised about the procedures used in our earlier studies to estimate the beta dose rates for a small number of samples. Here, we provide an update on our chronology for the SB and HP and address the issues raised about the methods that we used previously to estimate the beta dose rates and their associated uncertainties. To test the sensitivity of our new SB and HP ages to different underlying assumptions, we have run the same statistical model as that used in our 2008 and 2013 studies under three different scenarios. We show that the ages for the different samples are insensitive to how we analytically process or statistically model our data, and that our earlier conclusions about timing of the start and end of the SB and the HP and the probability of a gap between them remain true for two of the three scenarios. We conclude by bringing our study into the context of additional chronometric, stratigraphic and lithic technology studies that have been conducted in the intervening decade.

Ochre Provenance and Procurement Strategies During The Middle Stone Age at Diepkloof Rock Shelter, South Africa

Usually referred to in archaeological contexts simply as ‘ochre’, ferruginous rocks were commonly used during the Middle Stone Age (MSA) in South Africa. While ochre use by early modern humans has often been interpreted as reflecting complex behaviours, related procurement strategies and selection criteria remain poorly documented. Eight ochre sources from the surroundings of Diepkloof rock shelter in South Africa and 28 ochre pieces from the site's MSA levels were studied by XRD, ICP–OES and ICP–MS. Mineralogical and geochemical data demonstrate that ochre was both locally procured and transported to the site from more distant sources. Here, we investigate the reasons underlying the choice of particular local and non‐local ochre sources exploited at Diepkloof, emphasizing differences in their physico‐chemical properties. Regardless of the motivations behind ochre selection, our data shed new light on the behavioural complexity of MSA societies and suggest that ochre procurement strategies may be independent of subsistence concerns.

A previously undescribed organic residue sheds light on heat treatment in the Middle Stone Age

South Africa has in recent years gained increasing importance for our understanding of the evolution of ‘modern human behaviour’ during the Middle Stone Age (MSA). A key element in the suite of behaviours linked with modern humans is heat treatment of materials such as ochre for ritual purposes and stone prior to tool production. Until now, there has been no direct archaeological evidence for the exact procedure used in the heat treatment of silcrete. Through the analysis of heat-treated artefacts from the Howiesons Poort of Diepkloof Rock Shelter, we identified a hitherto unknown type of organic residue – a tempering-residue – that sheds light on the processes used for heat treatment in the MSA. This black film on the silcrete surface is an organic tar that contains microscopic fragments of charcoal and formed as a residue during the direct contact of the artefacts with hot embers of green wood. Our results suggest that heat treatment of silcrete was conducted directly using an open fire, similar to those likely used for cooking. These findings add to the discussion about the complexity of MSA behaviour and appear to contradict previous studies that had suggested that heat treatment of silcrete was a complex (i.e., requiring a large number of steps for its realization) and resource-consuming procedure.

Luminescence dating at Diepkloof Rock Shelter – new dates from single-grain quartz

Diepkloof Rock Shelter, in South Africa's Western Cape, has been the subject of two different luminescence dating projects in recent years (Jacobs et al., 2008; Tribolo et al., 2013) with somewhat divergent results. This paper presents dating analysis of three additional samples from Diepkloof, as well as one sample each from Kathu Pan 6 and Hollow Rock Shelter, also in South Africa. These samples were collected in 1995, prior to the other two projects. Analysis of single-grain quartz shows that the samples are near saturation. Conventional rejection criteria, when applied to dose recovery data, result in an underestimation of dose for high administered doses. Applying the fast ratio (Durcan and Duller, 2011; Duller, 2012) as a rejection criterion removes this underestimation and preferentially rejects grains from the samples with low equivalent dose values. This makes the ages older than they would have been without this criterion. Age results are older than those presented by Jacobs et al. (2008), and slightly older or equivalent to those provided by Tribolo et al. (2013).

An improved single grain OSL chronology for the sedimentary deposits from Diepkloof Rockshelter, Western Cape, South Africa

The single grain optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) chronology for the sedimentary deposit at Diepkloof Rockshelter, reported by Jacobs et al. (2008c), has recently been critiqued and several reasons proposed for why the OSL ages for the Intermediate and Early Howieson's Poort (HP) and Still Bay (SB) techno-complexes might be inaccurate. Tribolo et al. (2013) presented a series of OSL and thermoluminescence (TL) ages that were in agreement with each other, but, for some part of the sequence at least, were much older than the OSL chronology of Jacobs et al. (2008c). In this paper, we have tested the criticisms of Tribolo et al. (2013) and colleagues related to both the equivalent dose (De) estimates and the beta dose rates by performing a series of targeted experiments, combined with updates and re-assessments of our error calculations. We show that the De estimates are stable over a range of alternative measurement conditions and also over time. We also demonstrate the reproducibility of our measurement procedures for the beta dose rates, and their accuracy tested against a range of independently obtained estimates. We show that, for the stratigraphic units (SUs) where there are major discrepancies in age between Jacobs et al. (2008c) and Tribolo et al. (2013)—notably the Intermediate HP and Early HP—and for which both studies had single grain OSL ages, the estimation of potassium (K) in the sediment surrounding the dated grains is critical. We provide new and updated De and dose rate estimates, and final ages which we compare with our previous age estimates and those of Tribolo et al. (2013). The differences in the size of the errors associated with the ages reported in the two independent studies are also addressed. We can show that our ages are robust and consistent with the original chronology, but we cannot satisfactorily explain why the TL and OSL ages provided by Tribolo et al. (2013) might be wrong. So, the dating conundrum at Diepkloof Rockshelter remains. As a result, we caution against the development of HP and SB age models based on only one of the chronologies for this site. At this stage, extrapolation of the Tribolo et al. (2013) chronology to a re-interpretation of the southern African MSA would appear to be premature, especially as the ages do not differ systematically between the two studies and as differences between TL and OSL ages are not an issue at other sites in southern Africa where both dating methods have been applied. Further work is needed to resolve the question of the Diepkloof chronology.

Non-destructive analysis of archaeological ochre: a preliminary application to the Middle Stone Age site of Diepkloof Rock Shelter (South Africa)

A number of ochre pieces were found from the Middle Stone Age (MSA) in southern Africa, leading to recent debates about the use of this material. The relevant question behind such a debate lies in the role of ochre in early modern human societies. Technical, socio-economical and symbolic aspects might be associated with ochre processing and use. Ochre pieces showing signs of use-wear found on MSA sites are the main witnesses of such activities. That is why our work has focused on the study of ochre pieces, especially on the issue of the raw material selection. The relevance of non-destructive methods in order to determine the mineralogical nature of ochre is discussed here. Scanning electron microscopyenergy- dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM EDS) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) analyses were used. Based on careful considerations of the association of different features, such as the elementary composition or the fabric, we showed that under certain conditions surface analyses are very useful to assign samples into mineralogical categories.

The Middle Stone Age human remains from Diepkloof Rock Shelter (Western Cape, South Africa)

In the course of recent excavations at Diepkloof Rock Shelter (South Africa), three human remains were found in the Middle Stone Age layers. These human remains are two pedal phalanges (intermediate and distal) from a fifth ray, which belong to the same individual, and a deciduous first lower molar. The layers in which they were found represent the end of the Howiesons Poort and the beginning of post-Howiesons Poort occupation, and are radiometrically dated to MIS 3, between 45 and 65 kyr ago. They are thus very close in time to the assumed period of anatomically modern humans (AMH) dispersal out of Africa into Eurasia, a period for which very few remains are available in the African fossil record. Here, we describe these new remains and compare their morphology and dimensions to samples of African and Eurasian Pleistocene and Holocene humans. Our results show that the human remains from Diepkloof Rock Shelter fall well within the range of variation of AMH. The phalanges are of very small size and indistinguishable from those of recent humans. In addition, our analysis of the dm1 underlines a large size variation at the end of the MIS 4/beginning of the MIS 3 in the Western Cape. The discovery of human remains at Diepkloof Rock Shelter, albeit limited to three small bones, enriches a poorly represented chronological period of the African hominin fossil record.