Dichotomous Beliefs Research Articles

Combining Probabilities with Full Beliefs

AbstractOne of the major problems in formal epistemology is the difficulty of combining probabilistic and dichotomous (all-or-nothing) beliefs in one and the same formal framework. Based on the properties of actual human belief systems, a set of ten desiderata is proposed for belief system models that contain both probabilistic and full beliefs. Previously proposed combined belief systems are shown to fall short of these desiderata. A proof of concept is provided to show that they can be satisfied in a formal model. In the proposed model, the amnesia problem of probabilistic updating is solved by introducing infinitesimal probabilities as carriers of memories of beliefs that have been given up. In the resulting system of probability revision, contingent propositions can be transferred in both directions between full beliefs and beliefs held to a lower degree, in a way that mirrors real-life acquisitions and losses of full beliefs. The subsystem consisting of full beliefs has a pattern of change that constitutes a credible system of dichotomous belief change.

A social inference model of idealization and devaluation.

People often form polarized beliefs, imbuing objects (e.g., themselves or others) with unambiguously positive or negative qualities. In clinical settings, this is referred to as dichotomous thinking or "splitting" and is a feature of several psychiatric disorders. Here, we introduce a Bayesian model of splitting that parameterizes a tendency to rigidly categorize objects as either entirely "Bad" or "Good," rather than to flexibly learn dispositions along a continuous scale. Distinct from the previous descriptive theories, the model makes quantitative predictions about how dichotomous beliefs emerge and are updated in light of new information. Specifically, the model addresses how splitting is context-dependent, yet exhibits stability across time. A key model feature is that phases of devaluation and/or idealization are consolidated by rationally attributing counter-evidence to external factors. For example, when another person is idealized, their less-than-perfect behavior is attributed to unfavorable external circumstances. However, sufficient counter-evidence can trigger switches of polarity, producing bistable dynamics. We show that the model can be fitted to empirical data, to measure individual susceptibility to relational instability. For example, we find that a latent categorical belief that others are "Good" accounts for less changeable, and more certain, character impressions of benevolent as opposed to malevolent others among healthy participants. By comparison, character impressions made by participants with borderline personality disorder reveal significantly higher and more symmetric splitting. The generative framework proposed invites applications for modeling oscillatory relational and affective dynamics in psychotherapeutic contexts. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Association Between Individual Differences in Dichotomous Thinking and Current and Childhood High-Crime Environments.

The way people perceive the things around them is closely related to living in a complex and challenging social environment. Dichotomous thinking (preference for dichotomy, dichotomous belief, and profit-and-loss thinking), which classifies things in a simple way, can be useful in dangerous and resource-limited environments. However, based on prior studies, people's manner of perceiving things may have developed as a response to the harshness of their childhood environment, and may not be related to their current environment. Therefore, we examined the relationship between individual differences in dichotomous thinking and high-crime environments as indicators of environmental harshness. We assessed dichotomous thinking in 41,284 Japanese residents using large-scale data from the Human Information Database FY19 compiled by NTT DATA Institute of Management Consulting, Inc. The fixed effects regression model showed that, after controlling for age, high-crime environment of the residents' childhood was associated with dichotomous thinking, with the exception of dichotomous belief. On the other hand, their current environment of crime was not associated. In sum, our research suggests that people's dichotomous thinking tendency may be a form of adaptation to the harshness of their childhood environment rather than their current one.

A Basis for AGM Revision in Bayesian Probability Revision

In standard Bayesian probability revision, the adoption of full beliefs (propositions with probability 1) is irreversible. Once an agent has full belief in a proposition, no subsequent revision can remove that belief. This is an unrealistic feature, and it also makes probability revision incompatible with belief change theory, which focuses on how the set of full beliefs is modified through both additions and retractions. This problem in probability theory can be solved in a model that (i) lets the codomain of the probability function be a hyperreal-valued rather than the real-valued closed interval [0, 1], and (ii) identifies the full beliefs as the propositions whose probability is either 1 or infinitesimally smaller than 1. In this model, changes in the probability function will result in changes in the set of full beliefs (belief set), which constitutes a submodel that can be conceived as the “tip of the iceberg” within the larger model that also contains beliefs on lower levels of probability. The patterns of change in the set of full beliefs in this modified Bayesian model coincides with the corresponding pattern in a slightly modified version of AGM revision, which is commonly conceived as the gold standard of (dichotomous) belief change. The modification only concerns the marginal case of revision by an inconsistent input sentence. These results show that probability revision and dichotomous belief change can be unified in one and the same framework, or – if we so wish – that belief change theory can be subsumed under a modified version of probability revision that allows for iterated change and for the removal of full beliefs.

Not a Student, Not an Athlete, a Person

College athletics can place immense demands on athletes in terms of time commitment, physical conditioning, and pressure to perform. However, one important but less visible dimension affected by participation is one’s identity. College athletes hold multiple identities (Sturm et al., 2011) and these identities are further refined through their experiences (Chang et al., 2018). However, much less is known about athletes’ cognitive awareness of others’ perceptions and how those opinions influence athletes’ sense of self. In the present work, 52 Division I collegiate basketball players took part in a qualitative survey focused on understanding their athletic experience based on interactions with others. Responses revealed that athletes had dichotomous beliefs when addressing their perceptions of self and how they believed others viewed them, primarily based on the influence of sport. Conversely, athletes had more differing thoughts when discussing their aspirations and wishes for their future and often discussed professional goals, personality traits, and connections to others. Taken together, these results corroborate the desire (and need) for athletes to foster identities beyond their sport world (Stokowski et al., 2019) and for those who shape the sport experience to proactively work on behalf of athletes in this domain.

A Characterization of Probability-based Dichotomous Belief Revision

This article investigates the properties of multistate top revision, a dichotomous (AGM-style) model of belief revision that is based on an underlying model of probability revision. A proposition is included in the belief set if and only if its probability is either 1 or infinitesimally close to 1. Infinitesimal probabilities are used to keep track of propositions that are currently considered to have negligible probability, so that they are available if future information makes them more plausible. Multistate top revision satisfies a slightly modified version of the set of basic and supplementary AGM postulates, except the inclusion and success postulates. This result shows that hyperreal probabilities can provide us with efficient tools for overcoming the well known difficulties in combining dichotomous and probabilistic models of belief change.

The Effects of Dichotomous Thinking on Depression in Japanese College Students

The purpose of this study was to explore the effect of dichotomous thinking on depression. We attempted to test the following hypotheses: 1) dichotomous thinking increases depression, and 2) dichotomous thinking has two routes to increase depression—direct, associative processing, and indirect, reflective processing. Two hundred Japanese college students (Males: 107, Females: 93, M age= 20.02 ± 1.42) were asked to complete the Dichotomous Thinking Inventory, which consists of three subscales: dichotomous belief, profit-and-loss thinking, and preference for dichotomy; the Kessler 6 Distress Scale; and the Japanese version of the Rumination-reflection Questionnaire. We conducted structural equation modelling to test the hypotheses. The results supported the hypotheses and indicated that dichotomous thinking increased depression. There were two different routes: dichotomous belief directly increased depression and profit-and-loss thinking indirectly increased depression by way of rumination. There are some implications of the findings. This study suggests that cognitive distortions might causes depression from two paths and practical interventions might also have two different routes or approaches to depression.

Dichotomous thinking and cognitive ability

Dichotomous thinking has three dimensions: preference for dichotomy, dichotomous belief and profit-and-loss thinking. Previous studies imply that the dichotomous thinking is associated with low cognitive abilities and low level of education attainment. In the present study, we examined the relationships between dichotomous thinking and cognitive abilities, educational attainment in Japanese undergraduate sample and wider population sample who have different educational background. They completed Dichotomous Thinking Inventory and one of four cognitive tasks: The Cattel's Culture Fair Intelligence Test, Tanaka B method Intelligence Scale, syllogism test or the BAROCO short. Overall, correlation coefficients between the dichotomous thinking and the cognitive tasks were small but significantly negative in undergraduate sample. In wider population sample, dichotomous beliefs were negatively associated with cognitive ability, while profit-and-loss thinking was positively associated. Additionally, multiple regression analyses revealed that people with low level educational background show higher dichotomous thinking tendency. These findings indicate that the relationship between the dichotomous thinking and cognitive ability depends on the dimension, whereas dichotomous thinking is generally related to low educational attainment.

Evaluating scientific research: Belief, hindsight bias, ethics, and research evaluation

SummaryStudents may exhibit two forms of cognitive biases, belief and hindsight bias, in evaluating a scientific experiment. Counter to disagreement, they may only believe an outcome that agrees with their belief to be more predictable in hindsight than foresight. The focus of this research is on the relationship between these biases. Students were queried about their dichotomous beliefs (learned vs. genetic) about behavior for an animal experiment and then assigned randomly to a no‐outcome or genetic outcome condition. With agreement between students' belief and outcome, the findings revealed hindsight bias (foreseeability) supported by the outcomes for surprise, disappointment, ethics, and research evaluation. With disagreement, hindsight bias was trumped along with perceiving the experiment as being less ethical and scientifically sound. Regardless of the outcome, students seem to adhere to their beliefs. Hence, students may believe that the outcome is inconsequential because it is obvious or contrary to their beliefs.

Considering the negatively formed identity: Relationships between negative identity and problematic psychosocial beliefs

IntroductionDeveloping a firm sense of identity is a critical developmental task in adolescence and emerging adulthood, but little or no empirical research exists regarding individuals who firmly form negative identities and psychosocial beliefs. This study examined the formation of negative identities in youth and its association with psychosocial beliefs in terms of variable-oriented psychosocial facets (i.e., dichotomous beliefs, cynicism, and social distrust) and person-oriented psychosocial profiles. MethodsA total of 2313 young Japanese people (70.9% were females) aged 18–25 years answered the self-report questionnaire. ResultsWe consequently found that individuals with negative identities possessed problematic psychosocial facets, such as high dichotomous beliefs and cynicism, as well as low social trust. Furthermore, individuals with negative identities had profile characterized by strong hostility toward others/societies. ConclusionsOverall, our study provided a comprehensive understanding of how youth with negative identities face difficulty in constructing relationships with society, which has been neglected in prior research.

Becoming dead: Two solitudes?

The moral divide between proponents and opponents of medical assistance in dying is wide and can be ascribed to a number of dichotomous beliefs. This article addresses a particular and less commonly described platform for the divide: human acquiescence to physical decline and death as an important stage of life, versus presumptive human mastery over the timing and manner of some peoples' death. Practical ideas are then offered for health systems that wish to bridge the divide, to provide both robust palliative end-of-life care and medical assistance in dying programs for their patients, while keeping health workers whole.

How does thinking in Black and White terms relate to eating behavior and weight regain?

This study explores the role of dichotomous thinking on eating behavior and its association with restraint eating and weight regain in a wide range of people. In a web-based survey with 241 adults, dichotomous thinking and behavioral outcomes related to eating (restraint eating, weight regain, body mass index, dieting) were assessed. Results showed that eating-specific dichotomous thinking (dichotomous beliefs about food and eating) mediates the association between restraint eating and weight regain. We conclude that holding dichotomous beliefs about food and eating may be linked to a rigid dietary restraint, which in turn impedes people's ability to maintain a healthy weight.

Perceived causes of severe mental disturbance and preferred interventions by the Borana semi-nomadic population in southern Ethiopia: a qualitative study

BackgroundCulture affects the way people conceptualize causes of severe mental disturbance which may lead to a variation in the preferred intervention methods. There is a seemingly dichotomous belief regarding what causes severe mental disturbance: people living in western countries tend to focus mainly on biological and psychosocial risk factors; whereas, in non-western countries the focus is mainly on supernatural and religious factors. These belief systems about causation potentially dictate the type of intervention preferred. Studying such belief systems in any society is expected to help in planning and implementation of appropriate mental health services.MethodsA qualitative study was conducted among the Borana semi-nomadic population in southern Ethiopia to explore perceived causes of severe mental disturbance and preferred interventions. We selected, using purposive sampling, key informants from three villages and conducted a total of six focus group discussions: three for males and three for females.ResultsThe views expressed regarding the causes of mental disturbance were heterogeneous encompassing supernatural causes such as possession by evil spirits, curse, bewitchment, ‘exposure to wind’ and subsequent attack by evil spirit in postnatal women and biopsychosocial causes such as infections (malaria), loss, ‘thinking too much’, and alcohol and khat abuse. The preferred interventions for severe mental disturbance included mainly indigenous approaches, such as consulting Borana wise men or indigenous healers, prayer, holy water treatment and seeking modern mental health care as a last resort.ConclusionsThese findings will be of value for health care planners who wish to expand modern mental health care to this population, indicating the need to increase awareness about the causes of severe mental disturbance and their interventions and collaborate with influential people and indigenous healers to increase acceptability of modern mental health care. It also provides information for further research in the area of mental health in this semi-nomadic population.

Development and validation of the Dichotomous Thinking Inventory

The Dichotomous Thinking Inventory (DTI) was developed for this study as a self-report measure used to assess a black-and-white cognitive thinking style or worldview. Validation of the DTI was explored with regard to the relationships among dichotomous thinking, borderline personality, narcissism, self-esteem, undervaluing others, intolerance for ambiguity, perfectionism, and the Big Five; and relationships between dichotomous thinking and peer ratings of traits and attitudes. Factor analysis of the DTI revealed 3 components: preference for dichotomy, dichotomous beliefs, and profit-and-loss thinking. Internal consistency and test-retest reliability of the DTI were at a sufficient level. Correlations among self-measures supported the convergent and discriminant validity of the DTI. Participants who scored highly on the DTI were rated as being articulate and straightforward by their friends. These results generally supported the reliability and validity of the DTI.

Barriers to Effective Drug Abuse Prevention: The Role of Authoritarian Ideology

The relationships between authoritarian ideology and attitudes and beliefs about illegal drugs, the War on Drugs, and prevention strategies were investigated among 353 university faculty, administrators, and students. A confidential mail survey assessed five variables: right-wing authoritarianism, attitude toward drug legalization, attitude toward drug decriminalization, belief regarding the controlled use of illegal drugs, and the tendency to endorse a “just say no” approach to substance abuse prevention. Multivariate analyses revealed that highly authoritarian participants were significantly more opposed to both drug legalization and drug decriminalization than less authoritarian participants. Only nonauthoritarian participants favored decriminalization, though they did not favor legalization. Compared to those scoring lower on authoritarianism, higher-scoring authoritarian participants held significantly more dichotomous beliefs about illegal drugs (i.e., that abstinence or compulsive drug abuse are the only possibilities related to involvement with illegal drugs). They were also less likely to recommend to potential drug users that they consider following guidelines for their use that may potentially function as protective factors against drug abuse, preferring instead to endorse the slogan “just say no to drugs.” Comparisons between groups revealed that students scored significantly higher on authoritari anism and demonstrated significantly greater opposition to drug decriminalization than did faculty and administrators.

Belief systems which influence research in nursing: implications for preparing future investigators.

In the view of the authors, students enrolled in their first research course should become aware of the different belief systems held by investigators about research. All nurse researchers, including faculty who teach undergraduate research courses, have either consciously or unconsciously adopted a belief system. That philosophy determines what the educator sees as appropriate nursing theory, research questions, research designs and methods for nursing inquiry. Students may be confused by the apparent discrepancies in the content and methods of teaching a research course between two and among faculty who possess divergent philosophical views. They should be aware of some of the important belief systems which can influence theory development and research in nursing in order to use nursing research in clinical practice. Two dichotomous belief systems influencing approaches to the study of the phenomenon of pain are discussed: Empiricism and Phenomenology. Teaching strategies which help students know and appreciate different philosophical orientations are proposed. Finally, a rationale for including this content within an undergraduate research course will be given.