Diamond Grade Research Articles

An integrated petrological, geochemical and Re–Os isotope study of peridotite xenoliths from the Argyle lamproite, Western Australia and implications for cratonic diamond occurrences

An integrated study of the petrology and Re–Os geochemistry of a suite of peridotite xenoliths, some carrying abundant diamonds, from the richly diamondiferous Argyle AK1 lamproite pipe provides definitive evidence for a depleted lithospheric root of Neoarchean age (T RD eruption ∼ 2.2–3.1 Ga) beneath the Proterozoic Halls Creek Orogen at the margin of the Kimberley Craton, Western Australia. The microdiamonds from the peridotitic xenoliths are similar in their properties to the minor population of small, commercial sized, peridotitic diamonds from Argyle, both formed in the Archean from isotopically mantle-like carbon. The major element bulk chemistry and mineral chemistry of the Argyle peridotites are slightly less depleted than Archean cratonic peridotites as a whole but similar to those reported from Neoarchean–Paleoproterozoic cratonic provinces. The Argyle peridotite xenoliths were derived from within the diamond stability field (1050–1300 °C and 4.9–5.9 GPa) near the base of the lithosphere (typically 160–200 km depth) with a geothermal gradient of 41.5 mW/m 2. This thick diamondiferous lithosphere, estimated at up to 225 km thick from present day seismic S-wave tomography, appears to have persisted since the time of eruption of the Argyle lamproite (∼ 1180 Ma). The existence of late Archean age lithosphere beneath the Argyle diamond pipe, in a region where no crustal rocks of Archean age are known, suggests a decoupling of the crust and mantle in the region of the Halls Creek Orogen, perhaps as a consequence of Paleoproterozoic (∼ 1.85 Ga) reworking and/or subduction at the margin of the Kimberley Craton. The confirmation of an Archean lithospheric root beneath the Argyle pipe at the margin of the Kimberley Craton seemingly conforms with “Clifford's Rule”, regarding the restriction of economic diamond deposits to those underlain by Archean cratons. However, Argyle owes its rich diamond grades not to its Neoarchean mantle roots but to the presence of richly diamondiferous eclogitic material accreted to the craton root during the Proterozoic.

Uncertainty-based grade modelling of kimberlite: A case study of the Jay kimberlite pipe, EKATI Diamond Mine, Canada

Understanding uncertainty in resource models is a significant requirement of mineral resource evaluation. Geostatistical simulation is one method that can be used to quantify uncertainty and Sequential Gaussian Simulation (SGS) is one of the easiest techniques to understand and implement. Using SGS provides both a spatial model of a given variable and the ranges around that variable at any number of scales. The Jay kimberlite pipe is located in the southeastern quadrant of the EKATI property. Drilling to date has identified three kimberlitic domains characterized by varying lithological properties. These domains are not separated by hard contacts, but rather by boundaries that are transitional. Within these domains, vertical trends exist; in particular, diamond grade increases with depth. For these reasons, Jay required an in-depth investigation of the best uncertainty-based grade modelling method to use. Grade was modelled by organic SGS and by using the stepwise conditional transform (SCT) to incorporate a trend into the simulation routine. Although the SGS results were valid, they did not fully reproduce the trend and therefore, the results did not fully match the geological interpretation of the deposit. The SCT results reproduced the trend, however, did not correspond to the variability of the data and therefore under-represented the actual uncertainty in the model. This was confirmed through detailed uncertainty calculation and probabilistic resource classification. Therefore, the SGS model was chosen as the preferred uncertainty-based grade model for the Jay pipe.

The economic implications of kimberlite emplacement

The economic potential of kimberlite bodies is defined by the volume and diamond content of all their internal units which are summarised in three dimensional geological models. Canadian geological models reveal distinct types of kimberlite bodies characterised by fundamentally different emplacement processes and products. Data for representative samples of Canadian kimberlites are used to show that qualitative and quantitative macroscopic petrography (olivines and xenoliths) are powerful and practical techniques in assessing the economic implications of emplacement within individual phases of kimberlite. Kimberlite bodies result from the near-surface emplacement of multiple discrete batches of mantle-derived magmas, each carrying different diamond populations and, in some instances, subsequent resedimentation processes. Magmas containing ~ 25 modal % of olivine macrocrysts, the average maximum load of solids that can be carried to surface by a kimberlite magma, have the greatest potential to be significantly diamondiferous. Modifications to the abundance and size distribution of the olivine macrocrysts in each batch of magma commonly occur during emplacement. The modifications to the olivine macrocrysts, which vary with different emplacement processes and products, are mirrored in the macrodiamond content. Dilution by xenoliths is important in predicting diamond contents but it is also reflected in reduced olivine contents. Thus, olivine macrocrysts can act as a proxy for macrodiamonds. The abundance and size distribution data for olivine can improve the prediction of diamond grade and distribution within, and between, kimberlite units. Summary geological models and macroscopic petrography, together, improve the evaluation of newly discovered bodies resulting in enhanced resource estimates and increased degrees of confidence.

Geology and evaluation strategy of the Star and Orion South kimberlites, Fort à la Corne, Canada

Diamond-bearing kimberlites in the Fort à la Corne field, east-central Saskatchewan, consist primarily of volcaniclastic deposits which are interstratified with Lower Cretaceous continental, marginal marine and marine sediments. Seventy kimberlite occurrences have been drill-confirmed with the majority of those occurring in the Fort à la Corne main trend. The Star (352 ha) and Orion South (358 ha) kimberlite complexes are located at the south-eastern extremity of the main trend and contain some of the world's best examples of preserved primary volcaniclastic kimberlite deposits. The advanced exploration programs on both the Star and Orion South complexes offer a rare opportunity to examine a wide variety of in situ volcaniclastic kimberlite deposits. Both kimberlite complexes are composed of multiple eruptive units that were deposited episodically over 4 to 6 million years, separated by periods of volcanic quiescence marked by reworking of kimberlite and siliciclastic sedimentation. Detailed logging of core from 100 m spacing grid drilling has revealed well-defined tuff ring, tuff cone, crater and extra crater deposits. Evaluation of these large tonnage, lower grade, coarse diamond size frequency kimberlite complexes requires a methodical and multi-branched exploration strategy utilizing: 1. Grid-pattern core drilling to gain an understanding of the three-dimensional architecture of the kimberlite complexes; 2. Underground bulk sampling to provide appreciable carats for accurate estimates of diamond grade and price; and, 3. Grid-pattern mini-bulk sampling via large diameter drilling to obtain an understanding of the diamond grade across the breadth of each kimberlite.

Evaluation of kimberlite diamond potential using FTIR spectroscopy of xenocrystic olivine

Xenocrysts or phenocrysts of olivine in kimberlite show a diversity of hydroxyl-related infrared absorption bands that reflect compositional variation of their mantle source and conditions of last equilibration. Interpretation of infrared spectra of olivine in terms of equilibration/crystallization conditions may help to isolate spectral features associated with good diamond carrying and diamond preservation potential. As an exploratory study we examine by FTIR the spectroscopic features of olivine inclusions in diamond, olivine coexisting with diamond in peridotite xenoliths and olivine from diamond-free peridotite xenoliths. The three environments are respectively characterized by spectroscopically anhydrous olivine, olivine with low water concentrations (H 2O < 60 wt. ppm) and olivine that may be fairly rich in water (H 2O up to 260 ppm). Previous studies have shown that the majority of olivine macrocrysts in kimberlite contain > 100 ppm H 2O, with a significant proportion containing > 250 ppm H 2O. Our new results suggest that hydrogenation of olivine occurs in the mantle during equilibration with kimberlite-related hydrous fluids and/or during equilibration with, or crystallization from, kimberlite magmas during ascent. The association of gem diamonds with water-poor mantle olivine suggests that such samples experienced limited interaction with hydrous fluids/melts over a short time span, thus preventing diffusional equilibration. Future FTIR studies of olivine from kimberlites with widely variable diamond grades and reconciliation with diamond resorption features may permit development of new FTIR based procedures to assist in the evaluation of new kimberlite discoveries.

Depositional processes in a kimberlite crater: the Upper Cretaceous Orapa South Pipe (Botswana)

AbstractThe Orapa A/K1 Diamond Mine, Botswana, exposes the crater facies of a bilobate kimberlite pipe of Upper Cretaceous age. The South Crater consists of layered volcaniclastic deposits which unconformably cross‐cut massive volcaniclastic kimberlite of diatreme facies in the North Pipe. Based on the depositional structure, grain‐size, sorting and composition of kimberlite in the South Crater, six units are distinguished in the ∼70 m thick stratiform crater‐fill sequence and talus slope deposits close to the crater wall, which represents a multistage infill of the volcanic crater. Monolithic basalt breccias (Unit 1) near the base of the crater‐fill are interpreted as rock‐fall avalanche deposits, generated by the sector collapse of the crater walls. These deposits are overlain by a basal imbricated lithic breccia and upper massive sub‐unit (Unit 2), interpreted as the deposits of a pyroclastic flow that entered the South Crater from another source. Vertical degassing structures within the massive sub‐unit show evidence for elutriation of fines and probably were formed after emplacement by fluidization due to air entrainment. Units 3 and 5 are thinly stratified deposits, characterized by diffuse bedding, reverse and normal grading, coarse lenticular beds, mudstone beds, small‐scale scour channels and load casts. These units are attributed to rapidly emplaced sheet floods on the crater floor. Units 3 and 5 are directly overlain by poorly sorted volcaniclastic kimberlite (Units 4 and 6) rich in basalt boulders, attributed to debris flows formed by the collapse of crater walls. Unit 7 comprises medium sandstones to cobble conglomerates representing talus fans, which were active throughout the deposition of Units 1 to 6. The study demonstrates that much of the material infilling the South Crater is derived externally after eruption, including primary pyroclastic flow deposits probably from another kimberlite pipe. These findings have important implications for predicting diamond grade. Results may also aid the interpretation of crater sequences of ultra‐basic, basaltic and intermediate volcanoes, together with the deposits of topographic basins in sub‐aerial settings.

Classification of distinct eruptive phases of the diamondiferous Star kimberlite, Saskatchewan, Canada based on statistical treatment of whole rock geochemical analyses

Discrete eruptive events of the Star kimberlite, Saskatchewan, Canada have been classified into five distinctive clusters using statistical methods applied to whole rock geochemical data. The data set consists of 270 kimberlite samples from 38 drill holes that were analysed for whole rock major- and trace-element geochemistry. The data set was analysed by multivariate statistical techniques after a log-ratio transformation, including principal component analysis and linear discriminant analysis. Data analysis using principal component analysis recognized five distinct classes, confirmed by petrographic study, which correspond to unique mineralogical compositions. Based on relationships from detailed drill core logging results, these five geochemical classes are the Cantuar, Pense, early Joli Fou (eJF), mid Joli Fou (mJF) and late Joli Fou (lJF) equivalent age eruptive phases of the Star kimberlite. Subsequent statistical analysis utilizing linear discriminant analysis supports the distinctions between the classes. For the four kimberlite eruptive phases (Pense, early Joli Fou, mid Joli Fou and late Joli Fou) for which there is macrodiamond data from bulk sampling, there is an excellent correlation between the amount of lithospheric mantle contamination (as defined by the geochemistry) and the diamond grade.

Kimberlites and aillikites as probes of the continental lithospheric mantle

Although the mantle xenoliths carried by kimberlites are the source of much of our information about the composition of the mantle beneath the continents, the compositions of kimberlites themselves have received little attention for the information they carry about the nature of the lithospheric mantle. This neglect in part reflects their common fragmental, contaminated, and hybrid nature, but also the pervasive view that Group-I kimberlites are sourced in the underlying asthenosphere. Insight into the nature of kimberlites and their relationship to the other alkaline ultramafic rocks, such as aillikites, olivine lamproites, and meimechites, can be obtained by comparing their major element compositions in a way that treats their carbonate content as a primary magmatic phase. Group-I kimberlites and aillikites contain significant magmatic carbonate and their compositions fall to the Si-poor side of the composition of olivine. Group-I kimberlite can be distinguished from aillikite on the basis of Fe content, but there appears to be a gradation between these two end-members. In contrast, olivine lamproites and meimechites contain relatively little primary magmatic carbonate and have compositions that are more Si-rich than olivine. Pearce element ratio analysis assuming P as a conserved element indicates that much of the major element variation in hypabyssal kimberlites can be explained by variable amounts of olivine and orthopyroxene in proportions (∼ 70/30) similar to that of cratonic mantle xenoliths. Much of the olivine is present as xenocrysts, but the orthopyroxene is occult and has presumably been assimilated. The fact that individual fields of alkaline ultramafic rocks are characterized by uniform Fe and Ti contents that can be mapped on a regional scale suggests that the major element composition of these unusual rocks, and Group-I kimberlites in particular, is a reflection of the continental lithospheric mantle with which they have interacted. The association of Fe-rich aillikitic magmas with zones of cratonic rifting, and the requirements of Fe–Mg partitioning indicate that they form deeper than Group-I kimberlites, near the intersection of the 1350 °C mantle adiabat with the CO 2 mantle solidus, at pressures of 8 +GPa. According to our working model, Group-I kimberlites are produced by the influx and reaction of carbonate-rich magmas with the highly magnesian harzburgites of the lithospheric mantle beneath continental cratons. In non-cratonic environments, these rising carbonate-rich magmas evolve into aillikites because of the lower Mg # of the asthenospheric mantle. They rarely reach the surface, however, but become the enriched component incorporated into higher-degree basaltic melts. An inverse correlation between diamond grade and kimberlite Fe and Ti contents may simply reflect the fact kimberlites with the lowest Ti contents have interacted with the most depleted and reduced harzburgites of the lithospheric mantle, where diamonds are most likely to be encountered.

Diamond potential of metamorphic rocks in the Kokchetav Massif, northern Kazakhstan

There are two known diamondiferous bodies in Kazakhstan, the Kumdy-Kol deposit and the Barchi-Kol occurrence. Both are located within the western part of a metamorphic belt that outcrops at the central part of the Kokchetav Massif. The metamorphic belt is interpreted as a mega-melange that comprises structural units underlain by HP and UHP rocks. Diamondiferous varieties of the UHP rocks within the Kumdy-Kol deposit form a narrow (~1 km thick), NE-trending band; they comprise less than one percent of the total UHP rock volume. The economically important diamondiferous zone consists of variegated rocks, from silicate to essentially carbonate varieties with a wide spectrum of mineral assemblages. Garnet-biotite gneiss makes about 80 % of the diamondiferous zone. Certain regularity is discernable in spatial distribution of diamonds: linear diamond-rich zones alternate with barren ones. The diamond grade ranges from several carats per ton (cpt) to several hundreds cpt. Different morphological varieties are present among the diamonds: octahedra, cubes, cube-octahedron combination forms, skeletal and spheroid crystals. A wide range of δ 13 C (−8.9‰ through −27 ‰) and δ 15 N (+5.3 ‰ through +25 ‰) values have been measured. Diamonds from different rock types differ in their carbon isotopic pattern: diamonds from gneiss have ‘lighter’ isotopic compositions relative to those of pyroxene-carbonate and garnet-pyroxene rocks. Graphite, coesite, clinopyroxene, rutile, titanite, kyanite, K-feldspar, biotite, phengite, quartz, phlogopite, albite, apatite, chlorite and carbonates are minerals forming intergrowths with diamonds. The most frequent combination is graphite +diamond. We conclude that the model of crustal fluid-metasomatic formation of diamonds in metamorphic rocks reflects the observed regularities best. The morphology of diamondiferous bodies favors the notion of their formation from a carbon-bearing fluid. The micrometer size of the diamonds, along with isotopic signatures, hint at their formation under metastable crustal conditions. This model presumes that the formative process occurred at relatively low temperature and pressure within an open disequilibrium catalytic system. It does not exclude an UHP episode in the geological history of the metamorphic rocks.

Disease Management and Variable Planting Patterns in Peanut

AbstractPeanut (Arachis hypogea L.) is typically sown in single or twin rows centered on 91-cm beds. A planter capable of sowing 8 peanut rows on a 182-cm bed was developed by USDA-ARS. This planting pattern optimizes plant spacing and may contribute to crop advantages. Management of soil borne diseases in peanut may be affected by planting patterns. Replicated field experiments were conducted in 2002, 2003, and 2004 at two locations each year near Dawson, Georgia to compare interactions of planting patterns and disease management programs. Three fungicide application regimes were factored over single row, twin row, and diamond planting patterns, for a total of 9 treatments. A block calendar schedule with 14-d intervals was compared with two weather advisory programs, including AU-Pnuts and an experimental version of AU-Pnuts using minimum daily soil temperature (MDST) as a guide for fungicide selection. The seeding rate of each planting pattern was 22 seed/m2. There were no planting pattern by fungicide program interactions. Twin row and diamond planting patterns were often superior in yield than single rows; however, diamond patterns did not yield better than twin rows. Incidence of peg, pod, and limb rot caused by Rhizoctonia solani and stem rot caused by Sclerotium rolfsii was not severe in any trial and was not affected by planting pattern. Despite low disease presence, the calendar program was consistently better for yield and overall disease control than the two advisory programs. Yield was similar for the three fungicide treatments in four of six experiments. Grade of twin row and diamond planted peanut was 0.7 points better than single row peanut over three years at one location. Net return based on crop value less fungicide program cost was more closely tied to yield than variable input costs for fungicide programs.

Diamond resource potential of kimberlites from the Zimny Bereg field, Arkhangel’sk oblast

Kimberlites with different diamond grades from the Zolotitsa, Verkhotina, and Kepina occurrences of the Zimny Bereg field (Arkangel’sk oblast) have been compared in order to ascertain geochemical criteria of their diamond resource potential. A new collection of 21 core samples taken within a depth interval of 207–940 m from nine boreholes drilled in the central and western portions of the high-grade diamond-bearing Grib kimberlite pipe was subjected to comprehensive petrographic and geochemical examination, including Sr, Nd, and Pb isotopes and trace elements determined with ICP-MS. The compositional variations in kimberlites are controlled by the structural types of rocks. Porphyritic kimberlite (PK) distinctly differs from autolithic kimberlite breccia (AKB). Autoliths (Av) and PK are enriched in Th, U, Nb, Ta, La, Ce, Pr, P, Nd, Sm, Eu, Ti, LREE, and MREE, whereas HREE contents are rather uniform in all types of kimberlites. No lateral zoning was observed in pipes pertaining to the same structural type. The composition of kimberlites in the Zimny Bereg field and their diamond resource potential are variable. In the series of the Zolotitsa, Verkhotina, and Kepina occurrences, the Ti content increases, the La/Yb ratio grows from 18–44 to 70–130, and the diamond grade diminishes in the Kepina occurrence. The variations in kimberlite compositions are considered in terms of the degree of partial melting in the mantle, the role of volatiles, etc. As follows from the variation in the Ce/Y ratio, kimberlites from the Zolotitsa occurrence were formed at a lower degree of partial melting in comparison with the Kepina occurrence. Products of different degrees of partial melting are recognized within the Grib pipe; Av were likely formed at a somewhat higher degree of melting than AKB. An appreciable isotopic heterogeneity of the mantle is recorded in variable Nd and Sr isotopic compositions of kimberlites. The Kepina kimberlites were derived from a source slightly depleted relative to CHUR (ɛNd(t) reaches +4) and are close to kimberlites of group I in South Africa. Kimberlites from the Grib pipe with transitional Nd isotopic composition plotted near the Bulk Silicate Earth (BSE) value in the ɛNd(t)-ɛSr(t) diagram adjoin the first group. The source of kimberlites of the Zolotitsa occurrence falls in the field of enriched mantle and is considered to be a product of interaction of an asthenospheric plume with the ancient enriched lithospheric mantle. Kimberlites depleted in Ti, Zr, and Th are related to a source formed as a result of a multistage process that included mantle metasomatism with participation of fluids. Devonian kimberlites derived from sources that involve crustal material (a shift of 206Pb/204Pb, minimums of Th, U, Nb, and Ta contents) are diamond-bearing both in the East European Platform (the Zolotitsa and Verkhotina occurrences) and in the Siberian Craton (the Nakyn field).

An investigation on the machinability of Al-SiC metal matrix composites using pcd inserts

The paper attempts to study the machinability issues of aluminium-silicon carbide (Al-SiC) metal matrix composites (MMC) in turning using different grades of poly crystalline diamond (PCD) inserts. Al-SiC composite containing 15%wt of SiC was used as work material for turning and PCD inserts of three different grades were used as cutting tools. Experiments were conducted at various cutting speeds, feeds and depth of cuts and parameters, such as surface roughness, specific power consumed, and material removal rate were measured. The worn surface of the insert was examined by scanning electron microscope (SEM). The surface finish observed was found to be much lower than the theoretical surface roughness. The influence of cut was examined for the different grades of PCD inserts. It was observed that the 1600 grade PCD inserts performed well from the surface finish and specific power consumption points of view closely followed by the 1500 grade.

Nano to micrometric HFCVD diamond adhesion strength to Si 3N 4

In the present study, hot filament chemical vapour deposition technique was used to grow diamond films from nanometric to microcrystalline grain sizes. Their adhesion levels to a silicon nitride ceramic were compared after Brale tip indentation testing. The best behaviour was attained by the microcrystalline diamond (MCD) grade due to its higher crystallinity and superior hardness. In contrast, nanocrystalline diamond (NCD) coatings showed the less effective chemical bonding to the ceramic substrate due to the higher degree of sp 2 content. The MCD coating supported a normal load of 1600 N without spalling-off and presented an interfacial crack resistance of 12.0 N μm −1, much better than that reported until the present. This behaviour may be attributed to the CF 4 plasma pre-treatment of the substrate.

8th International Kimberlite Conference: Selected Papers, Volume I: The C. Roger Clement Volume, Volume II: The J. Barry Hawthorne Volume.: R. H. MITCHELL, H. S. GRUTTER, L. M. HEAMAN, B. H. SCOTT-SMITH, AND T. STACHEL, EDITORS. Volume I: Pp. 593; Volume II: Pp. 949. Hardcover. Elsevier. 2006. reprinted from Lithos, v. 76-77 (1-4). ISBN 0070931097. Price US$235, two-volume set.

The 85 papers contained in this two-volume set and reprinted from the journal Lithos were presented at the 8th International Kimberlite Conference in Victoria, British Columbia, Canada, in June 2003. They represent the most current published compendium of knowledge regarding the wide range of topics that the study of diamonds includes. Those economic geologists wishing to learn about the current state of knowledge in the diamond industry and in exploration for kimberlites will be compelled to read these papers, which cover subjects related to diamond growth, grade assessment, exploration methods, kimberlite petrogenesis, emplacement mechanisms, geochronology, mantle geochemistry, tectonics, and geometallurgy. Examples given are from Australia, Botswana, Brazil, Canada, China, Finland, India, Namibia, Russia, South Africa, Tanzania, USA, Venezuela, West Africa, and Zimbabwe, and from the deep mantle to the crust and the laboratory. These volumes address the interests of the mineral deposit and exploration community by providing the details of diamond formation, emplacement, exploration, and recovery, and then some. In exploration, target selection begins with analysis of craton architecture, regional geological terrain characteristics, prospectivity for kimberlite emplacement, and the potential for geologic diamond-producing or diamond-destructive factors at depth or at the surface. Techniques for indicator mineral analysis and diamond grade assessment, stone color, shape, and resorption characteristics, and resource estimation and geometallurgical factors all influence the viability of a project. Economic geologists will be interested to learn that the diamond business encompasses geology from the earth’s core (ultradeep diamonds) …

Characteristics of diamondiferous Plio-Pleistocene littoral deposits within the palaeo-Orange River mouth, Namibia

The Orange River, the principal conduit transporting diamonds from hinterland sources to the Namibian coast in post-Cretaceous times, is characterised by an extreme wave dominated delta that has given rise to a progression of coarse rudaceous littoral deposits preserved onshore for > 150 km north of the mouth. Under the long-lived, prevailing vigorous wave, wind and northward longshore drift regimes, the Orange River outfall has been reworked into, amongst others, a series of economically viable, diamondiferous Plio-Pleistocene onshore gravel beach deposits. These placers comprise spits and barrier beaches in the proximal reach within the palaeo-Orange River mouth that, after ca. 5 km northwards, merge into extensive but narrow linear beaches that, in turn after ca. 70 km, give way to pocket beaches. Gravel and diamond size decreases northwards away from the ancestral Orange River mouth. The linear and pocket beach types have considerably higher diamond content but lower average diamond stone size than the two proximal units that are characterised by low diamond grade but comparatively large average diamond size. Given the risk of delineating low grade alluvial diamond deposits accurately, we present here sedimentological reconstructions of the subtidal, intertidal and supra-tidal facies that constitute the spit and barrier beach sequences, based largely on face mapping of exploration trenches and open-cast, mine cuts, as well as the results of large tonnage, sampling campaigns. Diamond distribution is also linked convincingly to basic littoral processes that were operational within the palaeo-Orange River mouth during the complex transgression that gave rise to the + 30 m package in Plio-Pleistocene times. In both the spit and barrier beach settings, the intertidal deposits prove to be the most promising targets whereas the subtidal sediments are the least economic. The constant raking associated with coarse, cobble–boulder-sized gravel foreshore deposits in an energetic micro-tidal wave regime increased the average diamond stone size in the intertidal deposits to 1 to 2 carats per stone (cts/stn), but the lack of fixed trapsites (no competent footwall within the palaeo-Orange River mouth at that level) prohibited the accumulation of substantially enriched diamondiferous gravels. Consequently, grades of only 1.5 to 6 carats per 100 tons (cpht) are realised. The highest grades (2 to 6 cpht) are found in the landward-facing, intertidal beach deposits on the spits where gentle reworking in that sheltered environment had somewhat enriched and preserved the diamond content. Significantly, the low average stone size of ca. 0.5 cts/stn in this lower energy setting probably reflects that of the general diamond population available at that time. In contrast, the sand-rich subtidal deposits in the spit sequence return the lowest grades (0.1 to 0.5 cpht), similar to those in the slightly younger, subtidal transgressive boulder lags of the barrier beaches. However, the stone size in the spit subtidal sediments is also low (0.1 to 0.5 cts/stn) due to the highly mobile, fine-grained character of those deposits, whereas that in the subtidal transgressive lag is large (2 to 3 cts/stn) as a result of the local, semi-permanent turbulence associated with the boulder-sized clasts in these gravel sheets. Diamond distribution is therefore also influenced by littoral facies and associated beach types, in addition to the spatial and temporal parameters that have already been documented for the onshore marine placers of the southern Namibian coast.

Dissolution forms in Lac de Gras diamonds and their relationship to the temperature and redox state of kimberlite magma

The degree and character of diamond dissolution were compared to crystallization temperatures (T) and oxygen fugacities (fO2) estimated from chromite inclusions in olivine phenocrysts in several kimberlites from Lac de Gras, Northwest Territories, Canada. The T and fO2 values calculated at an assumed pressure of 1 GPa are in the range of 970–1,140±50°C and 2.8–4.4 log fO2units below the nickel–nickel oxide (NNO) buffer. The T and fO2 vary between kimberlites from northwest and southeastern clusters within 150°C and 1 log unit, respectively. A detailed description of morphological forms and surface dissolution features for diamond parcels from the Panda, Beartooth, Grizzly, Misery and Jay kimberlites (>7000 stones) show that an increase in diamond resorption in the kimberlites corresponds to increase in T. The development of various surface dissolution pits and structures correlates with higher fO2 of kimberlites and therefore mainly happens in the magma. The two processes of diamond dissolution, volume resorption and surface etching, do not show a strong correlation with each other, since some of the resorption occurs in the mantle. We suggest that the fO2 of the kimberlite magma plays an important role in both the processes. The proportion of plastically deformed brown diamonds does not correlate with the degree of volume resorption, but does correlate with the development of surface forms. The diamond grade is higher in kimberlites with lower fO2, confirming that conditions of kimberlite crystallization can have notable effect on diamond dissolution.

Neoproterozoic ‘anomalous’ kimberlites of Guaniamo, Venezuela: Mica kimberlites of ‘isotopic transitional’ type

In Venezuela, kimberlites have so far only been found in the Guaniamo region, where they occur as high diamond grade sheets in massive to steeply foliated Paleoproterozoic granitoid rocks. The emplacement age of the Guaniamo kimberlites is 712±6 Ma, i.e., Neoproterozoic. The Guaniamo kimberlites contain a high abundance of mantle minerals, with greater than 30% olivine macrocrysts. The principal kimberlite indicator minerals found are pyrope garnet and chromian spinel, with the overwhelming majority of the garnets being of the peridotite association. Chrome-diopside is rare, and picroilmenite is uncommon. Chemically, the Guaniamo kimberlites are characterized by high MgO contents, with low Al2O3 and TiO2 contents and higher than average FeO and K2O contents. These rocks have above average Ni, Cr, Co, Th, Nb, Ta, Sr and LREE concentrations and very low P, Y and, particularly, Zr and Hf contents. The Nb/Zr ratio is very distinctive and is similar to that of the Aries, Australia kimberlite. The Guaniamo kimberlites are similar in petrography, mineralogy and mantle mineral content to ilmenite-free Group 2 mica kimberlites of South Africa. The Nd-Sr isotopic characteristics of Guaniamo kimberlites are distinct from both kimberlite Group 1 and Group 2, being more similar to transitional type kimberlites, and in particular to diamondiferous kimberlites of the Arkhangelsk Diamond Province, Russia. The Guaniamo kimberlites form part of a compositional spectrum between other standard kimberlite reference groups. They formed from metasomatised subcontinental lithospheric mantle and it is likely that subduction of oceanic crust was the source of this metasomatised material, and also of the eclogitic component, which is dominant in Guaniamo diamonds.

On the thermal and chemical stability of diamond during processing of Al/diamond composites by liquid metal infiltration (squeeze casting)

Aiming at assessing the feasibility of Al/diamond composites, the present study deals with the thermal stability of different diamond grades under environmental conditions which are characteristic for the selected pressurized liquid melt infiltration technique (squeeze casting). The influence of both the diamond grade, i.e., synthetic and natural, mono- and polycrystalline diamond and the particle size is investigated. The critical parameters with respect to thermal degradation of diamond have been identified. It is shown that as a consequence of their peculiar process history, “micron-grade” diamond powders are particularly susceptible to thermal degradation in the presence of oxygen and that such degradation is most effectively prevented by using hydrogen-containing atmospheres such as forming gas. It is outlined why nanosized diamond powders and polycrystalline diamond powders are not a suitable “reinforcing phase” for Al/diamond composites. Eventually, it is shown that under the conditions prescribed, the liquid metal infiltration technique is principally viable for the processing of sound Al/diamond composites.

Geology and diamond distribution of the 140/141 kimberlite, Fort à la Corne, central Saskatchewan, Canada

The Cretaceous age Fort à la Corne (FALC) kimberlite province comprises at least 70 bodies, which were emplaced near the edge of the Western Canadian Interior Seaway during cycles of marine transgression and regression. Many of the bodies were formed during a marine regression by a two-stage process, firstly the excavation of shallow, but wide, craters and then subsequent infilling by xenolith-poor, crater-facies, subaerial, primary pyroclastic kimberlite. The bodies range in size up to 2000 m in diameter but are mainly less than 200 m thick and thus comprise relatively thin, but high volume, pyroclastic kimberlite deposits. Each body is composed of contrasting types of kimberlite reflecting different volcanic histories and, therefore, are considered separately.The 140/141 kimberlite is the largest delineated body in the province, estimated to have an areal extent below glacial Quaternary sediments in excess of 200 ha. The infilling of the 140/141 crater is complex, resulting from multiple phases of kimberlite. The central part of the infill is dominated by several contrasting phases of kimberlite. One of these phases is a primary pyroclastic airfall mega-graded bed up to 130 m in thickness. The constituents grade in size from very fine to coarse macrocrystic kimberlite, through to a basal breccia. The mega-graded bed is a widespread feature within parts of the body examined to date and at this current stage of evaluation appears to explain a variable diamond distribution within a tested portion of the pipe. A second different phase of kimberlite is interpreted as representing a younger nested crater within the mega-graded bed. Centrally located thicker intersections (>450 m) of this younger kimberlite may indicate a vent for the kimberlite crater. The thickness of the mega-graded bed increases with proximity to the younger kimberlite in the study area.Macrodiamond minibulk sample grades from the mega-graded bed have been obtained from nine large diameter drill holes, located within the northwest part of the body from an area of ∼20 ha, which represents approximately 10% of the currently modeled kimberlite outline. Diamond grade increases with depth within the mega-graded bed and also increases, within the same unit, towards the centrally positioned younger kimberlite. Macrodiamond sample grades vary from low at the top of the mega-graded bed, to considerably higher grades near the base. Total sample grade per drill hole varies from moderate near the vent feature to lower grades 200–300 m from the vent feature. Macrodiamond stone frequency measured in stones per tonne shows a pronounced relationship with depth and proximity to the vent feature within the mega-graded bed. There is a strong correlation between depth and increased stones per tonne, and a similar correlation between stones per tonne and proximity to the vent feature. The data supports the emplacement model of the mega-graded bed and, in turn, this information is useful in understanding the macrodiamond distribution within this bed.

Geology of the Mwadui kimberlite, Shinyanga district, Tanzania

The Mwadui pipe represents the largest diamondiferous kimberlite ever mined and is an almost perfectly preserved example of a kimberlitic crater in-fill, albeit without the tuff ring.The geology of Mwadui can be subdivided into five geological units, viz. the primary pyroclastic kimberlite (PK), re-sedimented volcaniclastic kimberlite deposits (RVK), granite breccias (subdivided into two units), the turbidite deposits, and the yellow shales listed in approximate order of formation. The PK can be further subdivided into two units—lithic-rich ash and lapilli tuffs which dominate the succession, and lithic-poor juvenile-rich ash and lapilli tuffs. The lower crater is well bedded down to at least 684 m from present surface (extent of current drill data). The bedding is defined by the presence of juvenile-rich lapilli tuffs vs. lithic-rich lapilli tuffs, and the systematic variation in granite content and clast size within much of the lithic-rich lapilli tuffs. Four distinct types of bedding have been identified in the pyroclastic deposits. Diffuse zones characterised by increased granite abundance and size, and upward-fining units, represent the dominant types throughout the deposit.Lateral heterogeneity was observed, in addition to the vertical changes, suggesting that the eruption was quite heterogeneous, or that more than one vent may have been present. The continuous nature of the bedding in the pyroclastic material and the lack of ash-partings suggest deposition from a high concentration (ejecta), sustained eruption column at times, e.g. the massive, very diffusely stratified deposits. The paucity of tractional bed forms suggest near vertical particle trajectories, i.e. a clear air-fall component, but the poorly sorted, matrix-supported nature of the deposits suggest that pyroclastic flow and/or surge processes may also have been active during the eruption.Available diamond sampling data were examined and correlated with the geology. Data derive from the old 120 (37 m), 200 (61 m), 300 (92 m) and 1200 ft (366 m) levels, pits sunk during historical mining operations, drill logs, as well as more recent bench mapping. Correlating macro-diamond sample data and geology shows a clear relationship between diamond grade and lithology. Localised enrichment and dilution of the primary diamond grade has taken place in the upper reworked volcaniclastic deposits due to post-eruptive sedimentary in-fill processes. Clear distinction can be drawn between upper (re-sedimented) and lower (pyroclastic) crater deposits at Mwadui, both from a geological and diamond grade perspective.Finally, an emplacement model for the Mwadui kimberlite is proposed. Geological evidence suggests that little or no sedimentary cover existed at the time of emplacement. The nature of the bedding within the pyroclastic deposits and the continuity of the bedding in the vertical dimension suggest that the eruption was continuous, but that the eruption column may have been heterogeneous, both petrologically as well as geometrically. Volcanic activity appears to have ceased thereafter and the crater was gradually filled with granite debris from the unstable crater walls and re-sedimented volcaniclastic material derived from the tuff ring.The Mwadui kimberlite exhibits marked similarities compared to the Orapa kimberlite in Botswana.