Dialectical Reading Research Articles

History and Catastrophe

Can we coherently conjugate high philosophy and slave insurgency under the heading of “universal history”? Is it possible to disentangle “universal history” from its roots in white supremacy and European imperial reason? Susan Buck-Morss' recent answer to that question, which was left somewhat unresolved in her seminal essay “Hegel and Haiti,” turns the Haitian Revolution and its half suppressed echo in Hegel's master-slave dialectic into an emblematic event. Universal ideas of liberty and liberation can only be glimpsed in singular moments of rupture, systemic break-down, and violence. The slave insurgency in Saint Domingue thus becomes a privileged moment in universal history. While I find Buck-Morss' reading of Hegel's master-slave dialectic in light of the Haitian Revolution more persuasive than many other recent attempts at thinking universality in relation to slave insurgency, I am troubled by the fact that Buck-Morss' anti-multiculturalist notion of universality is predicated on an epistemology of catastrophe and the violent stripping of the individual of cultural and social ties. If there is anything we can learn from the Western history of catastrophes, from Atlantic slavery to the Holocaust, it is that the nakedness and vulnerability of the victim is more likely to lead to fantastical cruelty than to the promotion of liberationist thought.

Between Winnicott and Lacan: Reclaiming the Subject of Psychoanalysis

Winnicott and Lacan, two towering figures of twentieth-century psychoanalysis, seem to represent distinct pathways in the clinical and theoretical evolution of the field after Freud. Winnicott was a developmentalist whose ideas about the psyche grew in large measure out of his work with infants and young children, while Lacan's were the fruit of his practice with adults and his study of structuralism and linguistics. Despite their divergent vocabularies, however, Winnicott and Lacan shared an interest in the nature and origins of the human subject and in the problems of sustaining a separate self. Moreover, they both saw a creative process as central to subjectivity and to the effective treatment of the psychic problems that arise when it is damaged. This paper argues for a complementary or dialectical reading of their approaches that can contain both the relational and intersubjective dimensions of psychoanalytic practice and that offers a way of understanding the underlying systemic factors in language and fantasy.

A Guide to Receiving Ralph Cohen

TRANSFORMING THE GENRES OF LITERARY HISTORY and literary theory, Ralph Cohen has reconstituted literary study and, in so doing, realigned the disciplines and reconceived the aims of the humanities. The interrelated, collaborative procedures for achieving such an accomplishment can be traced in Cohen's discovery of David Hume's aesthetics, his transactional teaching, his scholarly displacement of literary criticism by the art of discrimination, his dialectical reading of the Augustan mode, his innovative production of New Literary History, his institutional reorganization of knowledge as exemplified in the Commonwealth Center for Literary and Cultural Change, and, last but not least, in his generative essays, scattered like constellation disorders, literary instars across our cultural horizon. All of these deliberate forms of action are accessible, and yet their significance and their interrelations have been grasped but partially by the wide network of students, colleagues, and scholars who have called Ralph Cohen friend. I am not implying that Cohen's work has gone unacknowledged by the profession of letters, far from it; the distinctions both national and international in recognition of his thinking and scholarly eminence are manifold and widely known, his esteem epitomized fittingly by elective membership in both the American Academy of Arts and Sciences and the British Academy. Nor do I suggest that his achievements have been accomplished single-handedly; that would not only be a misrepresentation of his procedures, it would be a misreading of his character. Yet as apparent as it is that Ralph Cohen's performances are collaborative in nature, the collective nature of his papers is less evident. My essay

A dialética de Ricardo II

A atitude crítica de Antonio Candido decorre de uma compreensão materialista da forma literária, que não separa comentário histórico e análise formal, sempre articulando os dois campos na sua leitura dialética. “A culpabilidade dos reis”, ensaio que focaliza a peça Ricardo II de Shakespeare, é um exemplo revelador dessa prática analítica.

Heterogeneous performances of conceptual dis/continuity: a dialectic reading of Brown and Kloser’s article

We review Brown and Kloser’s article, “Conceptual continuity and the science of baseball: using informal science literacy to promote students science learning” from a Vygotskian cultural-historical and dialectic perspective. Brown and Kloser interpret interview data with student baseball players and claim that students’ conceptual understanding articulated in vernacular genres involves continuities (similarities) with the canonical scientific explanations. In this commentary, we suggest that the authors’ approach presupposes the dichotomy of the formal and the informal, which brings the authors’ attention to continuity into the separation of cognition from language. We propose a Vygotskian approach that points out the problem of theorizing cognition (conceptual understanding) by depending on specific forms of representation (e.g., scientific terms). As alternative, we envision a Vygotskian cultural-historical approach to language, which considers different, irreducible modes of communication as an integrated whole and therefore allows theorizing cognition without dichotomizing it from the concrete ways by which human being communicates. We provide an exemplary analysis of a lecture talk in a university physics classroom and exemplify dialectic theories that explain the development of conceptual understanding. We discuss that this Vygotskian dialectic approach shows that people communicate scientific concepts through hybridization, which does not reproduce a genre self-identically; the continuity of conceptual understanding involves dis/continuity.

Barth's Apocalyptic Exegesis and the Question of Israel in Römerbrief, Chapters 9–11

Abstract: Karl Barth's Der Römerbrief (1921) is considered by all to be a major milestone of modern theology, but is rarely considered by New Testament scholars as a reliable guide to Paul's theology and the message of Romans. In this essay I argue that Barth's “dialectical” reading of the epistle is in fact a very successful attempt to convey the truth and power of Paul's apocalyptic theology. While a critical comparison of Barth's dialectic and Paul's apocalyptic reveals some weaknesses in Barth's construal, his commentary stands as a penetrating and powerful rendition of Paul, and not simply as an example of Barth's early theology. This thesis is tested with particular reference to Romans 9–11, and the question of Israel and supersessionism. I show that Barth's reading of these chapters cannot be regarded as supersessionist, precisely because he rigorously subverts any historicist or heilsgeschichtlich readings of the relation between Israel and the Church. In this respect Barth's dialectical reading follows Paul's apocalyptic understanding of history, even though it must be corrected at points with a better reading of Paul.

How Long Will We Go On Militarizing the Civil Sphere? A Response to the Panel Discussion on Israel's Women Soldiers

��� The panel discussion held at the Schechter Institute on “The Experiences of Israel’s Women Soldiers over the Generations” presents perspectives on military service by women who have served in Israel’s defense forces (including the pre-state Palmach) in various periods and frameworks. For the purpose of analysis, I would like to invoke two opposing approaches that have accompanied feminist discourse from the outset of modernity. The first, “republican” approach, drawing upon the republican ethos, constructs military service as an expression of good citizenship, by which those who serve acquire the right to participate in determining the “common good.” Its proponents might thus incline toward the belief that serving in the military is a necessary condition for women to gain a civil status equaling that of men; that is, women must fulfill identical obligations to those fulfilled by men if they are to be entitled to the same rights. The “alternative” approach, by contrast, utterly rejects this linking of military service to women’s civil status. Its basic presumption is that the army is an inherently masculine organization that represses women and femininity and impugns the values represented and cherished by women. 1 As Orna Sasson-Levy has emphasized, 2 the army, seen from this perspective, replicates and enhances gender inequality by posing military masculinity as a universal, normative paradigm. Proponents of this approach might therefore incline toward the belief that women must aspire to detach themselves from the military and everything it stands for. In the following brief assessment, I shall analyze the panel discussion on the basis of the two approaches presented above. I hope, by means of this dual, dialectic reading, to elucidate the varied feminist implications of the discussion. Thereafter, I shall suggest a synthesis of the two approaches as a basis for

Weimar on the Pacific. German Exile Culture in Los Angeles and the Crisis of Modernism (review)

Reviewed by: Weimar on the Pacific. German Exile Culture in Los Angeles and the Crisis of Modernism Mark Grzeskowiak Ehrhard Bahr . Weimar on the Pacific. German Exile Culture in Los Angeles and the Crisis of Modernism. Berkeley: U of California P, 2007. 378 pp. US$ 39.95. ISBN 978-0-520-25128-8. Ehrhard Bahr's book is a thoroughly researched "collection of case studies" on an important group of German intellectuals and artists living in Los Angeles during the Second World War. According to Bahr, the work of exiles such as Max Horkheimer, Theodor Adorno, Bertolt Brecht, Thomas Mann, Alfred Döblin, and Arnold Schoenberg can be read within the context of a broader "crisis of modernism," and he persuasively argues that the "exile culture" that existed in Los Angeles between 1933 and 1958 "deserves its place among the global cityscapes of modernism." Weimar on the Pacific differs from previous scholarship in German exile studies in both its language (i.e., it is written in English) and in its exclusive focus on exiles living in the city of Los Angeles during the war. Bahr has based his definition of a particular "crisis of modernism" on British cultural historian Raymond Williams's contention that modernism can be understood as a response to dramatic changes "in the media of cultural production" in the nineteenth century and on Russell A. Berman's tripartite division of German modernist prose writing into "fascist modernism, leftist modernism, and a modernism of social individuality." Rather than present his readers with "another publication on German exile literature," his objective in Weimar on the Pacific is to examine "a particular chapter in the cultural history of Los Angeles" and the "specific German answer" to modernism that found expression there in architecture, film, music, philosophy, and theatre. For some exiled artists, this crisis in modernism provoked a retreat from modernism. Bahr's chapter on Franz Werfel, for example, shows how the Prague novelist and poet alternated between modernism and antimodernism while in his Californian exile. The same can be said of the novelist Alfred Döblin, whose Karl und Rosa, with its message of religious redemption over politics, also indicates a renunciation of modernism. On the other hand, and as is demonstrated in close readings of Bertolt Brecht's Galileo, Thomas Mann's Doktor Faustus, and Arnold Schoenberg's A Survivor from Warsaw, Bahr is also able to demonstrate how some of the artists exiled in Los Angeles overcame this crisis and reconstituted modernism in light of their new historical and political situations. In the case of Schoenberg's A Survivor from Warsaw, for example, Bahr shows how the composer combined traditional liturgy with modernism to produce an oratorio intended as a "commemoration of Jewish identity during a period of persecution." In the case of Doktor Faustus, Bahr employs Walter Benjamin's concept of antinomic allegory to argue that Mann's protagonist, Adrian Leverkühn, needs to be read "dialectically" against a background of fascist Germany and modernist art, rather than to be simply identified with either. The employment of a "dialectical reading" is central to Bahr's approach. Drawing upon Brecht's assertion that "emigration is the best school of dialectics," Bahr argues [End Page 482] that the exiled artists and intellectuals treated in his book adopted a "dialectical stance" towards Los Angeles, with its ocean-side bungalows and lush gardens, and that this distancing allowed them to see their new home as a "cityscape of modernism," rather than as a "natural paradise." In this sense, according to Bahr, the dialectic functioned as both a "structural and an intellectual argument in art and literature." To support the latter (intellectual) argument, Bahr relies heavily upon Horkheimer and Adorno's The Dialectic of Enlightenment (1944), which provides a general philosophical backdrop to the book's various case studies. Bahr sees in the Horkheimer/Adorno study "a comprehensive assessment and analysis of modernism and its crisis in the 1940s," and it of enormous benefit to his book that his analysis of The Dialectic of Enlightenment not only addresses its philosophical argument, but also attempts to place it within a specific historical setting. Despite its reliance on close reading and at times...

Text, genre, society: Hindi youth films and postcolonial desire

This paper proposes a renewed, interdisciplinary approach to the study of popular Hindi film, which uses the notion of genre to understand the relationship between individual films and social questions in contemporary India at large. We argue that ‘text’, ‘genre’, and ‘society’ are three crucial nodes that allow us to access the many levels at which individual films and groups of texts make meaning. The first half of the paper outlines three reading strategies, which we feel are crucial to understanding popular film as a genre. The second half proceeds to demonstrate the use of these strategies by enacting a dialectic and intertextual reading of three popular youth films of the early 2000s: Dil Chahta Hai, Kyon?, and Yuva, for what they reveal about change and postcolonial desire in contemporary urban India.

Targeting “Plan Colombia”: A Critical Analysis of Ideological and Political Visual Narratives by the Beehive Collective and the Drug Enforcement Administration Museum

This article compares the Beehive Collective’s “Plan Colombia” to a museum exhibition representing the official U.S. position on Plan Colombia. Through a dialectical (Kellner & Share, 2007; Greene, 1988) reading of “Plan Colombia” and “Target America,” I examine how each uses visual narrative to promote a particular reading of Plan Colombia. Drawing upon the body of scholarship in art education that promotes transdisciplinary approaches to studying the visual (Bolin & Blandy, 2003; Darts, 2004, 2006; Duncum, 2001, 2004; Freedman, 2003), this article employs perspectives from the field of visual communications, which includes visual narrative, visual rhetoric, and critical media literacy. I argue that teachers can use visual narrative and rhetoric to enhance their own critical media literacy skills. Literacy in these areas can make teachers more aware of the political “deep background” of visual objects and images—an awareness they must have if they are to pass it on to students.

Commencer par / finir par : un couple mal assorti

Abstract-. Whereas the pair of semiauxiliaries commencer à / finir de [_ INF] has been studied basically with reference to the «type coercion » phenomenon, no similar study has been devoted to the pair commencer / finir par [_ N/INF] that does not convey a symmetrical reference either to the first or to the last microevent (or micro-action) in the framework of a macro-event (or macro-action). Beginning with the distinction between a mereological and a dialectic reading of these constructions, the paper investigates the two types of constructions commencer/ finir par... with and without infinitive phrase, with and without an object NP. In only one configuration, namely the alternating constructions Nx commence Ny en Vppre → par Nz, one discovers a phenomenon related to type coercion.

The Urbanization of an Idea: Imagining Nature Through Urban Growth Boundary Policy in Portland, Oregon

A concept of a specifically "urban imaginary of nature" is developed through a dialectical (re)reading of Georg Simmel's and Louis Wirth's seminal texts on the nature of urbanism. We then examine how this urban imaginary is mobilized through the politics of nature in metropolitan Portland, Oregon. We demonstrate that the logic of Oregon's "Urban Growth Boundary" land-use policy promises the retrieval and spatial demarcation of a fading "nature" threatened by urbanization itself. We then examine how Portland's metropolitan planning agency ("Metro") imagines ways in which the urban growth boundary can reconcile and spatially delimit an "invisible line" where the urban ends and nature begins. These policies set the conditions through which Portland can market itself as the "green city." We conclude by arguing for a more radical and denaturalized political imaginary that takes into account the socioecological constitution of the urban "metabolism" itself.

Reading Gramsci in an Era of Globalising Capitalism

It is possible to read Gramsci – and through him, the tradition of historical materialism – in such a way that we are enabled to realise a potentially transformative politics of solidarity in a world where capitalist relations are extending and deepening, but which is nonetheless plural. A Gramscian‐inflected historical materialism enables an understanding of globalising capitalism, its relations of power and structures of governance, as the product of struggles – at once material and ideological – among concretely situated social agents. When viewed in terms of a dialectical reading of Gramsci, these struggles may be seen as reassertions of situated knowledges and process‐based understandings of social reality, antithetical to the abstract individualism residing in capitalism’s core, and embodying possibilities for critical engagement, dialogue, and transformative politics in an era of globalising capitalism.

Effectively Equivalent

Walter Pater's theoretical "come-back" over the past forty years or so has been dominated by the competing claims of the new historicism and deconstruction, both of which discover prescient forerunners of their own, seemingly mutually exclusive, theoretical concerns in Pater's aesthetic criticism and in his historical novel Marius the Epicurean(1885). Yet despite their obvious differences, both critical approaches share one thing in common: the same post-humanist denigration of the trope of metaphor in favor of the seemingly more ethically responsive (because inclusive) trope of metonymy. In this essay I observe how the new historicism's and deconstruction's privilegings of metonymy as the prime trope of difference poses an immediate problem for ethical thought that, largely under the influence of Alain Badiou, has become increasingly cognizant of the need for a workable conception of sameness (or universality), traditionally supplied by metaphor. Accordingly, this close reading of the metaphorical dialectic of one of Pater's surprisingly underread Imaginary Portraits, "Sebastian van Storck" (1887), explores the basic charge against metaphor-namely, that it is an essentially"theological" trope insofar as it invariably pre-posits the "identity" that it modestly claims to have merely discovered. Employing the central figure of Sebastian's idealism-equation-I venture that, once rethought as a relation not of identity but of equivalence, metaphor is capable of shouldering the rhetorical burden of similarity without relinquishing its ethical claim as a primary producer of new differences in the world and is, hence, deserving of a central place in a post-deconstructive ethics.

Reevaluating the "Old" Cold War: A Dialectical Reading of Two 9/11 Narratives

sent into battle as soon as their feet touch ground. Gone is the heroic, blond, and blueeyed Ari Ben Canaan threatening to blow up a shipload of civilians. Instead, as Gitai's dazed but armed refugees scramble up a stony hill, they encounter a group of Palestinian refugees trudging in the opposite direction. Uri Barrabash's The Dreamers (1985) has its turn-of-the-century pioneering Jewish settlement struggle with the ethos of agricultural labor, shared property, free love, and the forging of a New Jew. The claims of their Palestinian neighbors to land ownership get registered obliquely as they do with Gitai's refugees. Several articles in Gertz, Lubin, and Ne'eman's edited volume Fictive Looks concern these issues.

The Spatiality of The Limits to Capital

In The Limits to Capital, David Harvey (1982) sets himself three goals. First, he offers a dialectical reading of Das Kapital, together with Die Grundrisse (Marx 1972; 1983), replicating the spirit of Marx’s own analysis in opposition to the more analytical and methodologically individualist readings of rational choice Marxism prevailing at the time (Barnes and Sheppard 1992). Second, he extends Marx’s analysis to pay explicit attention to space, in order to demonstrate that the geographical nature of capitalism fundamentally shapes its evolution. Third, he seeks to explain why capitalism cannot transcend its own limits, despite its flexibility and inventiveness (hence the book’s title). With respect to the first goal, he succeeds brilliantly. Of the many accounts of Capital that I have read, Harvey comes closest to replicating the spirit and scope of Marx. It is a sad commentary on radical political economy, and on the status of economic geography among economists of all ideological persuasions, that the book never received the attention it deserves outside geography. 1 His geographical extension of Marx has been enormously influential, however, among geographers and others interested in the geographical dynamics of capitalism. A whole lexicon of concepts, now widely used and discussed, is articulated for the first time in Limits. These include uneven geographical development; the spatial fix; the built environment as a barrier to capital accumulation; the three circuits of investment capital; territorial regulation; space–time compression; local entrepreneurialism and inter-place competition; the production of place, space and scale; finance, fixed and fictitious capital; rent and urban redevelopment; and the instability of the capitalist spaceeconomy. When I sat down to re-read Limits for this symposium, I was surprised to find him developing concepts that received little attention until even a decade later. This prescience is further tribute to how much the efflorescence of radical geography owes homage to Harvey, also among those who have become vocal critics. In this brief essay, I seek to summarize how Harvey spatializes Capital; to assess this achievement in light of subsequent research

Hegel's Dialectic and the Recognition of Feminine Difference

Many recent feminist interpreters of Hegel have criticized his conception of dialectic as implicitly masculinist. Allegedly, Hegel figures dialectic as a process whereby a unitary, implicitly masculine, term incorporates a feminine other that has been troubling it, through an appropriative move which restores self-assurance and self-identity to the masculine term.1 In this essay, I wish to question this critique, exploring an alternative reading of Hegel's dialectic on which it incorporates both initially opposed terms within third, more encompassing, structures. To this, it might be objected that Hegel's supposedly encompassing third terms are really merely amplified versions of his first-symbolically masculine-terms. In response, I shall draw on Gillian Rose's reading of Hegel's third terms as "broken middles" that consist only in the ongoing movement of splitting and diremption between the terms they encompass.2 This reading positions Hegel's third terms as genuinely irreducible to either of their torn halves, and so as symbolically sexually dual rather than masculine. This opens up intriguing possibilities for convergences between Hegelian dialectical philosophy and a feminism of sexual difference, as my conclusion will briefly sketch. Feminist Criticisms of Hegel Let me begin by reviewing recent feminist interpretations of Hegel. Perhaps the central criticism to emerge from these interpretations is that Hegel's dialectical ontology is "masculinist": that is, it relies on a systematic and hierarchical contrast between masculine and feminine as symbols. As is well known, Hegel's entire philosophy is structured by dialectical progressions that obey a general pattern (one more complex than the traditional "thesis, antithesis, synthesis" caricature conveys). In each case, Hegel presents us with an initial reality of some kind-perhaps a concept, a type of entity, or a more fundamental ontological structure like the simple "being" with which his Logic begins. In the next phase, Hegel identifies a point at which this reality passes beyond its initial character. He calls this the moment of "dialectic" in the strict sense, the point at which the first reality contradicts or negates itself. For example, he argues that being proves entirely contentless and so identical with "nothingness." The third phase of any dialectical process involves the reconciliation of the two realities with which we are now confronted-the first element and that which has arisen as its negation or antithesis. Being antithetical, these two elements cannot simply subsist alongside one another. They must be reconciled in a third, "speculative," moment.3 For example, being and nothingness are reconciled in "becoming," which just is the complex fact that being continually negates itself to become nothingness while nothingness, equally, remains indistinguishable from being and so, reciprocally, passes back into it. The precise mechanism by which Hegel proposes to reconcile the first and second terms of dialectical oppositions, though, is disputed. How far one finds Hegel's dialectic masculinist depends, above all, on how one understands his mechanism of reconciliation. Many feminist readers of Hegel have suggested that a hierarchical contrast between the symbolically masculine and feminine subtends his overall understanding of dialectical processes. According to these readers, the first term in any dialectical process is tacitly figured as masculine insofar as it exists in an initial state of serene unity and sameness with itself (unity and sameness having historically been equated with the masculine position, as Simone de Beauvoir and Luce Irigaray-among others-have pointed out).4 The second term, contrary to the first, is implicitly feminine inasmuch as it occupies the position of other, of what is different and derivative. The third moment, in which reconciliation occurs, now presents itself as that in which the masculine element regains its unity by incorporating the feminine other that had been troubling it. …

Cleaning up after the Celtic Tiger: scalar ‘fixes’ in the political ecology of Tiger economies

This paper explores intersections between political economy and nature in the so‐called Tiger economies that have risen to prominence since the 1960s. Whilst Tiger states are in many ways emblematic of the extremes of late capitalism, they are nevertheless characterized by socio‐natural environments that are distinctive, both in terms of the political and economic interests that have underpinned them and their rates of production. Whilst produced under a distinctive set of capitalist social relations, the dialectical reading offered herein chooses to foreground the agency that socio‐nature itself possesses in relation to prevalent class interests. This agency is conceptualized in terms of a series of cultural wars over transformed nature. Using a theoretically provocative case study that examines the politics of waste management in Ireland, the paper argues that in reflecting upon the role of such culture wars in the constitution of dominant social relations in Tiger states, the concepts of scalar strategies and struggles over scale may prove useful. Whilst social contests over the scaling of governance have tended thus far to focus upon the dialectical relations between scale and political economy, the paper argues that ecological projects too are fundamentally produced by and implicated in the structuration of scale. In calling for dialogue between political ecological studies and recent work in geography that has sought to theorize scale as a social process, the paper hopes to contribute towards the development of a political ecology of Tiger states.

Chronicles of Disorder: Samuel Beckett and the Cultural Politics of the Modern Novel (review)

For decades now, Samuel Beckett's work has invited extensive commentary and explication, above all perhaps to confront a basic question: Whatever might have possessed the man to write this way? Today, however, one senses that the peculiarly intense quality of this appreciative attention, which takes its departure from the singularity of Beckett's writing, may also have been a source of blindness among professional Beckett readers. Recent critics have exerted themselves to reconsider Beckett within the occasion of his writing, and the results have provoked controversy. For what may seem to some as gymnastically dialectical readings of Beckett's historical "typicality," to others appear perverse gyrations in the face of the evidence of his uniqueness. David Weisberg's Chronicles of Disorder is an excellent instance of the new contextualizing trend of Beckett criticism, and it is sure to provoke the kind of polarized reactions that I have described. Weisberg, indeed, explicitly acknowledges that "for those who feel that uncovering Beckett's typicality diminishes his achievement, this book will seem of little value" (9).

The Limits of Internationalization: a Neo-Gramscian Analysis of the Multilateral Agreement On Investment

The OECD's attempt to create a Multilateral Agreement on Investment provides a useful case study with which to examine the process of the internationalization of the state. Transnational historical materialism sees the development of supranational institutions such as the failed MAI as part of the neoliberal strategy of an emerging transnational capitalist class. However, in defining internationalization in terms of the national state becoming a transmission belt for global capital, transnational historical materialism adopts a deterministic reading of Gramsci's theory of hegemony. A more dialectical reading of hegemony suggests that internationalization will be uneven and contradictory. The suspension of negotiations for the MAI reveals how hegemonic conflicts, both within and directed against the transnational capitalist class, impose important limits on internationalization.