Diagnosis Of Pancreatic Cystic Lesions Research Articles

Clinical Feasibility of 5.0 T MRI/MRCP in Characterizing Pancreatic Cystic Lesions: Comparison with 3.0 T and MDCT.

Objectives: To assess the feasibility of 5.0 T magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in characterizing pancreatic cystic lesions (PCLs), compared with 3.0 T MRI and multidetector computed tomography (MDCT). Methods: Thirty-five patients with PCLs underwent 5.0 T MR alongside 3.0 T MR or MDCT. Two observers measured subjective and objective image quality scores. The consistency of two observers between 5.0 T and 3.0 T was calculated by intraclass correlation coefficients. The characteristics of PCLs and their specific diagnosis, as well as benignity/malignancy, were evaluated across MDCT, 3.0 T, and 5.0 T MRI. Results: The 5.0 T MR demonstrated significantly higher subjective image quality and SNR on T1WI compared to that in 3.0 T MR (p < 0.05). The 5.0 T MRI identified more cyst lesions than the 3.0 T MRI (40 and 32) and MDCT (82 and 56). The sensitivity, specificity, and accuracy for differentiating benign from malignant lesions with 5.0 T MRI (75%, 100%, and 91.4%, respectively) surpassed those of 3.0 T MRI and MDCT. The accuracy of the specific diagnosis of PCLs at 5.0 T MRI (80%) was superior to 3.0 T MRI and MDCT. Conclusions: 5.0 T MRI exhibits certain superiority in delineating details of PCLs and in clinical diagnostic accuracy, outperforming MDCT and 3.0 T MRI while maintaining sufficient image quality.

Cystic ductal adenocarcinoma of pancreas complicated with neuroendocrine tumor: A case report and review of literature

BACKGROUND Difficulties in making an accurate preoperative diagnosis of cystic pancreatic lesions pose a challenge for radiologists. It would be helpful to report rare cases and review the literature. CASE SUMMARY In the present report, a case of a patient with a pancreatic cystic lesion initially misdiagnosed as a pseudocyst by radiologist was documented, which was later pathologically confirmed as pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma with neuroendocrine tumor. However, subsequent literature review yielded no previous reports of pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma with neuroendocrine tumors and cystic lesions. Therefore, literature on the imaging diagnosis of pancreatic cystic lesions was instead reviewed and discussed. CONCLUSION Careful evaluation of the characteristics revealed by multimodal imaging techniques, medical history, laboratory examination data and follow-up observations, is critical to the diagnosis and treatment of pancreatic cystic disease. We provide valuable insights into the diagnosis of pancreatic cystic disease through a rare case report and literature review.

Jehlová konfokální laserová endomikroskopie v diferenciální diagnostice cystických lézí pankreatu

Summary: Background: Pancreatic cystic lesions are relatively common findings, and their prevalence continues to rise, which is also related to the expansion of imaging methods. Up to 15% of pancreatic cancers arise from mucinous cystic tumours of the pancreas, primarily from intraductal papillary mucinous neoplasia (IPMN). Needle-based confocal laser endomicroscopy (nCLE) represents an advanced diagnostic method with the potential to improve the accuracy of diagnosing focal pancreatic lesions. Aim: The aim of the work is to provide a recent overview of the position of nCLE in the diagnosis of pancreatic cystic lesions and some of our own experiences. The nCLE method is based on so-called real-time optical biopsy, which brings better diagnostic results compared to traditional methods such as CT, MRI/MRCP, and EUS, as confirmed by the authors‘ own data. Although nCLE offers certain advantages, its wider use in clinical practice is limited by the high costs of equipment, technical difficulties during examination, and the need for thorough training of endoscopists. The integration of all diagnostic procedures (EUS, cytology, nCLE, and next-generation sequencing) into artificial intelligence algorithms could minimize the disadvantages of individual methods and increase the overall efficiency of diagnosing pancreatic cystic lesions. Conclusion: nCLE represents an innovative method for diagnosing pancreatic cystic lesions, which, in combination with other procedures (microforceps biopsy, next-generation sequencing, assessment of nCLE findings, and overall malignancy risk using artificial intelligence), can further enhance its diagnostic accuracy in this context. Key words: needle-based confocal laser endomicroscopy – pancreatic cystic lesion – optical biopsy – endoscopic ultrasound – artificial intelligence

Rare Pancreatic/Peripancreatic Cystic Lesions Can Be Accurately Characterized by EUS with Through-the-Needle Biopsy-A Unique Pictorial Essay with Clinical and Histopathological Correlations.

Due to their aspecific macroscopic appearance, uncommon pancreatic cystic lesions (PCLs) are often misdiagnosed as mucinous lesions and improperly resected. We aimed to evaluate the endoscopic ultrasound (EUS)-guided through-the-needle biopsy (TTNB) capacity of the preoperative diagnosis of uncommon PCLs. Overall, 136 patients with PCLs who underwent EUS-TTNB between 2016 and 2022 were retrospectively identified. Common histotypes (e.g., IPMN, serous cystadenoma, and mucinous cystadenoma) were excluded and 26 (19.1%) patients (15 female, mean age 52.9 ± 10.4) were analyzed. The EUS findings, adverse events (AEs), and TTNB outcomes in uncommon PCLs were evaluated. The cysts histotype was accurately diagnosed by TTNB in 24/26 (92.3%) cases (seven cystic neuroendocrine tumors, four squamoid cysts, three acinar cells cystadenomas, two lymphoepithelial cysts, two mucinous non-neoplastic cysts, two bronchogenic cysts, two cystic lymphangiomas, one solid-pseudopapillary neoplasm, and one schwannoma). In the remaining two cases, lymphangioma was eventually diagnosed after resection. Surgery was performed in 15/26 (57.7%) patients. The mean follow-up of non-surgical patients was 32.5 months. One severe acute case of pancreatitis (3.8%) that required surgery occurred after EUS-TTNB. Uncommon pancreatic/peripancreatic lesions represent the 19.1% of PCLs in our series, with mainly benign histotypes. TTNB demonstrated a high diagnostic performance with a low rate of AEs in this setting, representing a reliable tool with which to avoid useless surgery.

Use of contrast-enhanced harmonic endoscopic ultrasonography for the diagnosis of pancreatic cystic lesions.

Endoscopic ultrasonography (EUS) provides high spatial and contrast resolution and is a useful tool for evaluating the pancreato-biliary regions. Recently, contrast-enhanced harmonic EUS (CH-EUS) has been used to evaluate lesion vascularity, especially for the diagnosis of pancreatic tumors. CH-EUS adds two major advantages when diagnosing pancreatic cystic lesions (PCL). First, it can differentiate between mural nodules and mucous clots, thereby improving the accurate classification of PCL. Second, it helps with evaluation of the malignant potential of PCL, especially of intraductal papillary mucinous neoplasms by revealing the vascularity in the mural nodules and solid components. This review discusses the use and limitations of CH-EUS for the diagnosis of PCL.

Contrast-enhanced endoscopic ultrasound in the differential diagnosis of pancreatic cystic lesions

Contrast-enhanced endoscopic ultrasound in the differential diagnosis of pancreatic cystic lesions

Preconditions for radiomics-based approach in differential diagnosis of pancreatic cystic lesions: critical evaluation of meta-analyses and international guidelines

INTRODUCTION: Pancreatic cystic lesions (PCLs) are a heterogenous group of lesions ranging from benign to malignant with variable histological, pathomorphological and prognostic characteristics. The development and improvement of radiation methods provides a great opportunity to diagnose such neoplasms. However, there are still difficulties in differential diagnosis and prediction malignant potential in pancreatic cyst subtypes due to their similar radiation characteristics.OBJECTIVE: To determine the diagnostic performane and difficulties of differentiating PCLs by invasive and non-invasive radiological methods. To determine the preconditions for radiomics-based approach in differential diagnosis of pancreatic cystic lesions based on a review and analysis of international guidelines.MATERIALS AND METHODS: We searched for scientific publications in the PubMed and Springer information and analytical systems for 2009–2023 by keywords: «pancreatic tumors», «pancreatic cyst», «pancreatic cystic lesion», «pancreatic radiomics», «intraductal papillary mucinous neoplasm», «pancreatic cystadenoma». As a result, 49 articles were selected for analysis.RESULTS: Despite the high potential of modern non-invasive radiation methods in the detection of pancreatic cysts, differentiation of PCLs subtypes is still very difficult. Due to the variability of international guidelines and a lack of their specificity, there is no universal consensus for management PCLs. In this regard, introduction new alternative diagnostic methods and markers is an important direction of research. At the moment, the assessment of the malignant potential of PCLs is comes down to only two main signs — the main pancreatic duct diameter and the vascularized solid component.CONCLUSION: Currently, common semiotic features, limitations of invasive diagnostic methods and increasing risks of recurrence and malignancy dictate the need to apply new diagnostic approaches to evaluation of PCLs. Searching and introduction new markers will allow us to analyze the lesion structure, to stratify risks and long-term prognosis more accurately. Textural image analysis is a new and promising noninvasive method with high power. This tool plays an important role to estimate those structural parameters which are impossible to judge according to the standard radiologic features, and to offset the problems of traditional diagnostic approach.

The Hong Kong consensus recommendations on the diagnosis and management of pancreatic cystic lesions.

The finding of pancreatic cystic lesions (PCL) on incidental imaging is becoming increasingly common. International studies report a prevalence of 2.2-44.7% depending on the population, imaging modality and indication for imaging, and the prevalence increases with age. Patients with PCL are at risk of developing pancreatic cancer, a disease with a poor prognosis. This publication summarizes recommendations for the diagnosis and management of PCL and post-operative pancreatic exocrine insufficiency (PEI) from a group of local specialists. Clinical evidence was consolidated from narrative reviews and consensus statements formulated during two online meetings in March 2022. The expert panel included gastroenterologists, hepatobiliary surgeons, oncologists, radiologists, and endocrinologists. Patients with PCL require careful investigation and follow-up due to the risk of malignant transformation of these lesions. They should undergo clinical investigation and pancreas-specific imaging to classify lesions and understand the risk profile of the patient. Where indicated, patients should undergo pancreatectomy to excise PCL. Following pancreatectomy, patients are at risk of PEI, leading to gastrointestinal dysfunction and malnutrition. Therefore, such patients should be monitored for symptoms of PEI, and promptly treated with pancreatic enzyme replacement therapy (PERT). Patients with poor response to PERT may require increases in dose, addition of a proton pump inhibitor, and/or further investigation, including tests for pancreatic function. Patients are also at risk of new-onset diabetes mellitus after pancreatectomy; they should be screened and treated with insulin if indicated. These statements are an accurate summary of our approach to the diagnosis and management of patients with PCL and will be of assistance to clinicians treating these patients in a similar clinical landscape.

Structured training program on confocal laser endomicroscopy for pancreatic cystic lesions: a multicenter prospective study among early-career endosonographers (with video)

Background and aimsThere are limited data about how to teach endosonographers needle-based confocal laser endomicroscopy (nCLE)-guided histologic diagnosis of pancreatic cystic lesions (PCLs). Hence, we developed and tested a structured educational program to train early-career endosonographers in nCLE-guided diagnosis of PCLs. MethodsTwenty-one early-career nCLE-naive endosonographers watched a teaching module outlining nCLE criteria for diagnosing PCLs. Participants then reviewed 80 high-yield nCLE videos, recorded diagnoses, and received expert feedback (phase 1). Observers were then randomized to a refresher feedback session or self-learning at four weeks. Eight weeks after training, participants independently assessed the same 80 nCLE videos without feedback and provided histologic predictions (phase 2). Diagnostic performance of nCLE to differentiate mucinous vs. non-mucinous PCLs and to diagnose specific subtypes were analyzed using histopathology as the gold standard. Learning curves were determined using cumulative sum analysis (CUSUM). ResultsAccuracy and diagnostic confidence for differentiating mucinous vs. non-mucinous PCLs improved as endosonographers progressed through nCLE videos in phase 1 (p<0.001). Similar trends were observed with the diagnosis of PCL subtypes. Most participants achieved competency interpreting nCLE, requiring a median of 38 assessments (range 9-67). During phase 2, participants independently differentiated PCLs with high accuracy (89%), high confidence (83%), and substantial IOA (k=0.63). Accuracy for nCLE-guided PCL subtype diagnosis ranged from 82-96%. The learned nCLE skills did not deteriorate at eight weeks and were not impacted by a refresher session. ConclusionWe developed a practical, effective, and durable educational intervention to train early-career endosonographers in nCLE-guided diagnosis of PCLs.

Value of Endoscopic Ultrasound-Guided Through-the-Needle Biopsy in Pancreatic Cystic Lesions. A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.

Endoscopic ultrasound-guided through-the-needle biopsy (EUS-TTNB) has been used over the past few years to increase diagnostic accuracy for pancreatic cystic lesions (PCLs). However, many concerns remain regarding its widespread use. This systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to pool the data from high-quality studies to evaluate the utility of EUS-TTNB in diagnosing PCLs. Electronic databases (PubMed, Embase, and Cochrane Library) from January 2010 through October 2022 were searched for publications addressing the diagnostic performance of EUS-TTNB in the diagnosis of pancreatic cystic lesions. Pooled proportions were calculated using fixed (inverse variance) and random-effects (DerSimonian-Laird) models. The initial search identified 635 studies, of which 35 relevant articles were reviewed. We extracted data from 11 studies that met the inclusion criterion, comprising a total of 575 patients. Mean patient age was 62.25years ± 6.12 with females constituting 61.39% of the study population. Pooled sensitivity of EUS-TTNB in differentiating a PCL as neoplastic or non-neoplastic was 76.60% (95% CI = 72.60-80. 30). For the same indication, EUS TTNB had a pooled specificity of 98.90% (95% CI = 93.80-100.00). The positive likelihood ratio was 10.28 (95% CI = 4.77-22.15), and the negative likelihood ratio was 0.26 (95% CI = 0.22-0.31). The pooled diagnostic odds ratio for EUS-TTNB in diagnosing PCLs as malignant/pre-malignant vs. non-malignant was 41.34 (95% CI = 17.42-98.08). Pooled adverse event rates were 3.04% (95% CI = 1.83-4.54) for pancreatitis, 4.02% (95% CI = 2.61-5.72) for intra-cystic bleeding, 0.94% (95% CI = 0.33-1.86) for fever, and 1.73% (95% CI = 0.85-2.91) for other minor events. EUS-TTNB has good sensitivity with excellent specificity in accurately classifying PCLs as neoplastic or non-neoplastic. Adding EUS-TTNB to EUS-FNA increases the accuracy of EUS-guided approach in diagnosing PCLs. However, it could significantly increase the risk of post-procedural pancreatitis.

Pancreatic Cystic Neoplasms: Translating Guidelines into Clinical Practice

A combination of several factors, including the increasing use of cross-sectional imaging and an aging population, has led to pancreatic cystic lesions (PCLs) becoming the most detected incidental pancreatic lesions. Accurate diagnosis and risk stratification of PCLs is challenging. In the last decade, several evidence-based guidelines have been published addressing the diagnosis and management of PCLs. However, these guidelines cover different subsets of patients with PCLs and offer varying recommendations regarding diagnostic assessment, surveillance, and surgical resection. Further, recent studies comparing the accuracy of various guidelines have reported significant variations in the rate of missed cancer versus unnecessary surgical resections. In clinical practice, it is challenging to decide which guideline to follow specifically. This article reviews the varying recommendations of the major guidelines and results of comparative studies, provides an overview of newer modalities not included in the guidelines, and offers perspectives on translating the guidelines into clinical practice.

The Role of Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) in the Diagnosis of Pancreatic Cystic Lesions (PCLs)

Pancreatic cystic lesions (PCLs) are a common incidental finding on cross-sectional imaging. Given the high signal to noise and contrast resolution, multi-parametric capability and lack of ionizing radiation, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) has become the non-invasive method of choice to predict cyst type, risk stratify the presence of neoplasia, and monitor changes during surveillance. In many patients with PCLs, the combination of MRI and the patient's history and demographics will suffice to stratify lesions and guide treatment decisions. In other patients, especially those with worrisome or high-risk features, a multimodal diagnostic approach that includes endoscopic ultrasound (EUS) with fluid analysis, digital pathomics, and/or molecular analysis is often necessary to decide on management options. The application of radiomics and artificial intelligence in MRI may improve the ability to non-invasively stratify PCLs and better guide treatment decisions. This review will summarize the evidence on the evolution of MRI for PCLs, the prevalence of PCLs using MRI, and the MRI features to diagnose specific PCL types and early malignancy. We will also describe topics such as the utility of gadolinium and secretin in MRIs of PCLs, the limitations of MRI for PCLs, and future directions.

Markedly elevated pancreatic cyst fluid cea: reconsidering its role in risk stratification

Background: Pancreatic cyst fluid CEA plays an important role in the diagnosis of pancreatic cystic lesions. However, the evidence to date on its potential use in risk stratification for mucinous lesions is heterogenous. The height of the CEA elevation is currently being used in algorithms of commercially available pancreatic cyst fluid analysis (PCFA) platforms. Further, clinicians continue to have concern about patients with markedly elevated cyst fluid CEA. We therefore sought to examine the relationship between the height of the CEA elevation and the structural and molecular properties of the cyst and cyst fluid.

Diagnostic value of EUS-guided SF6 pancreatography for pancreatic cystic lesions on cyst communication with the pancreatic duct.

ERCP remains the reliable method to determine whether pancreatic cystic lesions (PCLs) and pancreatic duct communicate when other modalities (computed tomography, magnetic resonance imaging, and EUS) fail. However, complications after ERCP are still a risk that should not be ignored. In this study, we evaluated the value of EUS-guided SF6 pancreatography (ESP) for the diagnosis of PCLs focusing on pancreatic cyst communication with the pancreatic duct. We reviewed the database of medical records to retrieve the clinicopathological data of the patients with PCLs who had undergone ESP, and analyzed the diagnostic value of ESP to determine communication between the cyst and the pancreatic duct. The inclusion criteria were as follows: (1) PCLs were pathologically diagnosed by postsurgery specimen or through-the-needle biopsy and (2) ESP was performed to determine communication between the pancreatic cyst and the pancreatic duct. Pathological diagnosis confirmed communication with the pancreatic duct in all eight patients with positive pancreatography, among whom seven were branch-duct-intraductal papillary mucinous neoplasm (BD-IPMN) and one was the main duct-IPMN. Pathological diagnosis confirmed noncommunication with the pancreatic duct in 20 of the 21 patients with negative pancreatography, among whom 11 were mucinous cystic neoplasm, 7 were serous cystic neoplasm, 1 was solid pseudopapillary neoplasm, 1 was pancreatic pseudocyst, and 1 was BD-IPMN. The accuracy, sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value, and negative predictive value of ESP to determine communication between the pancreatic cyst and the pancreatic duct were 96.6% (28/29), 88.9% (8/9), 100% (20/20), 100% (8/8), and 95.2% (20/21), respectively. ESP achieved high accuracy to determine communication between the pancreatic cyst and the pancreatic duct.

Coexistence of pancreatic lymphoepithelial cyst and uroepithelial carcinoma: A rare case report

Pancreatic Lymphoepithelial Cysts (PLECs) are very rare and benign lesions of the pancreas. They are commonly detected incidentally during radiological examinations. Proper diagnosis of Pancreatic Cystic Lesions (PCLs) is very important, and physicians should be aware of the different types of cystic lesions and their characteristics before the treatment choice. However, preoperative diagnosis of PLECs, which have no malignant potential and rarely symptomatic or cause complication, are difficult due to nonspecific imaging and the presence of cytological features that overlap with other PCLs. Although many methods are used to avoid unnecessary surgery, most cases are diagnosed after surgery. We report a very rare case of PLEC with coexisting uroepithelial carcinoma.

Comparative Performance of Endoscopic Ultrasound-Based Techniques in Patients With Pancreatic Cystic Lesions: A Network Meta-Analysis.

Evidence on the comparative diagnostic performance of endoscopic ultrasound (EUS)-based techniques for pancreatic cystic lesions (PCLs) is limited. This network meta-analysis comprehensively compared EUS-based techniques for PCL diagnosis. A comprehensive literature search was performed for all comparative studies assessing the accuracy of 2 or more modalities for PCL diagnosis. The primary outcome was the diagnostic efficacy for mucinous PCLs. Secondary outcomes were the diagnostic efficacy for malignant PCLs, diagnostic success rate, and adverse event rate. A network meta-analysis was conducted using the ANOVA model to assess the diagnostic accuracy of each index. Forty studies comprising 3,641 patients were identified. The network ranking of the superiority index for EUS-guided needle-based confocal laser endomicroscopy (EUS-nCLE) and EUS-guided through-the-needle biopsy (EUS-TTNB) were significantly higher than other techniques for differentiating mucinous PCLs; besides, EUS-TTNB was also the optimal technique in identifying malignant PCLs. The evidence was inadequate for EUS-nCLE diagnosing malignant PCLs and contrast-enhanced harmonic EUS diagnosing both mucinous and malignant PCLs. Glucose showed a high sensitivity but low specificity, and molecular analysis (KRAS, GNAS, and KRAS + GNAS mutations) showed a high specificity but low sensitivity for diagnosing mucinous PCLs. Satisfactory results were not obtained during the evaluation of the efficiency of pancreatic cyst fluid (PCF) biomarkers in detecting malignant PCLs. For centers with relevant expertise and facilities, EUS-TTNB and EUS-nCLE were better choices for the diagnosis of PCLs. Further studies are urgently required for further improving PCF biomarkers and validating the diagnostic performance of the index techniques.

Deep Learning for Automatic Differentiation of Mucinous versus Non-Mucinous Pancreatic Cystic Lesions: A Pilot Study

Endoscopic ultrasound (EUS) morphology can aid in the discrimination between mucinous and non-mucinous pancreatic cystic lesions (PCLs) but has several limitations that can be overcome by artificial intelligence. We developed a convolutional neural network (CNN) algorithm for the automatic diagnosis of mucinous PCLs. Images retrieved from videos of EUS examinations for PCL characterization were used for the development, training, and validation of a CNN for mucinous cyst diagnosis. The performance of the CNN was measured calculating the area under the receiving operator characteristic curve (AUC), sensitivity, specificity, and positive and negative predictive values. A total of 5505 images from 28 pancreatic cysts were used (3725 from mucinous lesions and 1780 from non-mucinous cysts). The model had an overall accuracy of 98.5%, sensitivity of 98.3%, specificity of 98.9% and AUC of 1. The image processing speed of the CNN was 7.2 ms per frame. We developed a deep learning algorithm that differentiated mucinous and non-mucinous cysts with high accuracy. The present CNN may constitute an important tool to help risk stratify PCLs.

Targeted next-generation sequencing of EUS-guided through-the-needle-biopsy sampling from pancreatic cystic lesions

Recent advances have introduced molecular subtyping of pancreatic cystic lesions (PCLs) as a possible amendment to the diagnostic algorithm. The study evaluated the feasibility and diagnostic accuracy of molecular analysis and subtyping of PCLs using the recently introduced EUS-guided through-the-needle-biopsy (TTNB) sampling. We prospectively included 101 patients in the study who presented with PCLs >15mm in the largest cross-section. EUS-guided TTNB samples were obtained by a micro-biopsy forceps introduced through a 19-gauge needle. The TTNB samples were analyzed by next-generation sequencing (NGS) for point mutations in tumor suppressors and oncogenes using a 51-gene customized hotspot panel. Sensitivity and specificity were calculated with the histologic diagnosis as reference. After initial microscopic evaluation of the samples, 91 patients had residual TTNB samples available for NGS. Of these, 49 harbored mutations, most frequently in KRAS and GNAS, reflecting an excess frequency of intraductal papillary mucinous neoplasms (IPMNs) in the study population. A sensitivity and specificity of 83.7% (95% confidence interval [CI], 70.3-92.7) and 81.8% (95% CI, 48.2-97.7), respectively, were demonstrated for the diagnosis of a mucinous cyst and 87.2% (95% CI, 74.2-95.2) and 84.6% (95% CI, 54.5-98.1) for the diagnosis of an IPMN. Thus, molecular analysis of TTNB samples by NGS has high sensitivity and specificity for diagnosing mucinous cysts and IPMNs. Although the procedure comes with a risk of adverse events of 9.9%, TTNB samples are a robust alternative to cyst fluid for a combined histologic and molecular diagnosis of PCLs. (Clinical trial registration number: NCT03578445.).

Biochemical Intracystic Biomarkers in the Differential Diagnosis of Pancreatic Cystic Lesions.

Background and Objectives: Pancreatic cystic lesions (PCLs) are frequently incidental findings. The prevalence of PCLs is increasing, mainly due to advancements in imaging techniques, but also because of the aging of the population. PCLs comprise challenging clinical problems, as their manifestations vary from benign to malignant lesions. Therefore, the recognition of PCLs is achieved through a complex diagnostic and surveillance process, which in turn is usually long-term, invasive, and expensive. Despite the progress made in the identification of novel biomarkers in the cystic fluid that also support the differentiation of PCLs, their application in clinical practice is limited. Materials and Methods: We conducted a systematic review of the literature published in two databases, Pubmed and Embase, on biochemical biomarkers in PCLs that may be applied in the diagnostic algorithms of PCLs. Results: Eleven studies on intracystic glucose, twenty studies on intracystic carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA), and eighteen studies on other biomarkers were identified. Low levels of intracystic glucose had high sensitivity and specificity in the differentiation between mucinous and non-mucinous cystic neoplasms. Conclusions: CEA and glucose are the most widely studied fluid biochemical markers in pancreatic cystic lesions. Glucose has better diagnostic accuracy than CEA. Other biochemical biomarkers require further research.

Advances in the Diagnosis of Pancreatic Cystic Lesions.

Pancreatic cystic lesions (PCLs) are a heterogenous group of lesions ranging from benign to malignant. There has been an increase in PCLs prevalence in recent years, mostly due to advances in imaging techniques, increased awareness of their existence and population aging. Reliable discrimination between neoplastic and non-neoplastic cystic lesions is paramount to ensuring adequate treatment and follow-up. Although conventional diagnostic techniques such as ultrasound (US), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and computer tomography (CT) can easily identify these lesions, assessing the risk of malignancy is limited. Endoscopic ultrasound (EUS) is superior to cross-sectional imaging in identifying potentially malignant lesions due to its high resolution and better imaging characteristics, and the advantage of allowing for cyst fluid sampling via fine-needle aspiration (FNA). More complex testing, such as cytological and histopathological analysis and biochemical and molecular testing of the aspirated fluid, can ensure an accurate diagnosis.