Developmental Test Of Visual-Motor Integration Research Articles

Performance on the Developmental Test of Visual-Motor Integration and its supplementary tests: Comparing Chinese and U.S. kindergarten children

ABSTRACTVisual-motor integration (VMI) is the ability to coordinate visual perception and motor skills. Although Chinese children have superior performance in VMI than U.S. norms, there is limited information regarding the performance of its basic composition of VMI in regard to visual and motor aspects. This study aimed to examine the differences in performance in VMI, visual perception (VP), and motor coordination (MC) using the Beery-Buktenica Developmental Test of Visual-Motor Integration (VMI-6) among Hong Kong Chinese kindergarten children compared to established U.S. norms. Standard scores for each age were statistically compared to the corresponding mean values for U.S. children. This comparison showed significantly higher VMI mean scores for Hong Kong Chinese children than for their age-matched peers. The following equation was derived to allow for a comparison of VMI to U.S. norms (adjusted score = 0.777 (Chinese VMI raw score)—0.796). In extending current knowledge on superior performance in VMI among Chinese children, better VP and MC skills were also observed. This phenomenon might be due to the orthographic feature of traditional Chinese characters and early formal instruction on reading and writing in Hong Kong. This study has not only pointed out the need to administer all three tests of the VMI-6 to identify the underlying causes of VMI problems but has also alerted educators and clinicians as to when to administer the tests to Chinese children in Hong Kong.

Interrater and Test-Retest Reliability of the Beery Visual-Motor Integration in Schoolchildren.

To assess interrater and test-retest reliability of the 6th Edition Beery-Buktenica Developmental Test of Visual-Motor Integration (VMI) and test-retest reliability of the VMI Visual Perception Supplemental Test (VMIp) in school-age children. Subjects were 163 Native American third- to eighth-grade students with no significant refractive error (astigmatism <1.00 D, myopia <0.75 D, hyperopia <2.50 D, anisometropia <1.50 D) or ocular abnormalities. The VMI and VMIp were administered twice, on separate days. All VMI tests were scored by two trained scorers, and a subset of 50 tests was also scored by an experienced scorer. Scorers strictly applied objective scoring criteria. Analyses included interrater and test-retest assessments of bias, 95% limits of agreement, and intraclass correlation analysis. Trained scorers had no significant scoring bias compared with the experienced scorer. One of the two trained scorers tended to provide higher scores than the other (mean difference in standardized scores = 1.54). Interrater correlations were strong (0.75 to 0.88). VMI and VMIp test-retest comparisons indicated no significant bias (subjects did not tend to score better on retest). Test-retest correlations were moderate (0.54 to 0.58). The 95% limits of agreement for the VMI were -24.14 to 24.67 (scorer 1) and -26.06 to 26.58 (scorer 2), and the 95% limits of agreement for the VMIp were -27.11 to 27.34. The 95% limit of agreement for test-retest differences will be useful for determining if the VMI and VMIp have sufficient sensitivity for detecting change with treatment in both clinical and research settings. Further research on test-retest reliability reporting 95% limits of agreement for children across different age ranges is recommended, particularly if the test is to be used to detect changes due to intervention or treatment.

Grade 3 Learners’ Representation of their Solutions to a Design Problem through Drawing: A Semiotic Analysis

Literature suggests that drawing has an important role in the development of learning and thinking skills and the communication of ideas. However, the role and use of drawing by young learners within the process of designing is poorly understood. Working with 22 Grade 3 learners from a well-resourced school in KwaZulu–Natal, this study sought to explore the use of drawing in designing. The research design constituted two phases. The preliminary phase explored the range of these learners’ ability to draw using two normative diagnostic tests: the Beery–Buktenica Developmental Test of Visual-Motor Integration (VMI) and the Goodenough Harris Draw-a-Person (DAP) Test. The main phase of the study explored the relation between drawing and designing. It used a design probe to ascertain how these Grade 3 learners represented their design solutions through drawing. Both the VMI and the DAP Tests revealed a wide range of drawing ability in this group, with performances higher in the DAP Test. A semiotic analysis of how these Grade 3 learners represented their design solutions through drawing revealed, first, that all four semiotic resources, as identified by Mavers, were employed in the design solutions. Secondly, there was no one-to-one relation between producing ‘good’ drawings and ‘successful’ designing. Thirdly, Grade 3 learners used drawing in two distinct ways: (a) as a representational tool—i.e. recording tool; and (b) as a conceptual tool—i.e. an interactive design tool. The analysis shows that 44% of Grade 3 learners use drawing as a recording tool. Attention is on the appearance of the drawing rather than on the development of the design solutions. In contrast, 56% used drawing as an interactive design tool, highlighting the attempt to have a visual conversation with the design. Despite the absence of formal coaching or explanation of the purpose of using drawing for design, more than half of Grade 3 learners enacted this capability.

Visuomotor Function in School-Age Children with Single-Suture Craniosynostosis.

Previous studies have shown that infants and young children with single-suture craniosynostosis (SSC) perform more poorly on tests of visuomotor function than children without SSC. However, previous studies are limited by small sample sizes and little is known about the persistence of visuomotor problems into the school-age years. The aim of this study was to compare visuomotor function in children with and without SSC at the beginning of elementary school. The study included 179 children with SSC (cases) and 183 children without SSC (controls). Visuomotor function was measured by the NEPSY-II Arrows, the Purdue Pegboard Test, and the Beery-Buktenica Developmental Test of visual-motor integration. Case-control differences were estimated using linear regression, adjusted for age, sex, socioeconomic status, and maternal IQ. Cases scored more poorly on all measures of visuomotor function, although the magnitude of case-control differences varied across measures. The greatest differences were observed for the Purdue Pegboard Test, with an average adjusted difference of -0.2 to -0.4 SD points (p-values ranged from .008 to .05). Case-control differences were small in magnitude for other measures of visuomotor function, ranging from -0.01 to -0.1 SD points (p-values ranged from .22 to .88). Children with SSC experienced deficits in manual dexterity into the school-age years but were similar to children without SSC on measures of visual processing. These findings advocate for the assessment of fine-motor function as part of school readiness evaluations in children with SSC.

Visual-motor integration, visual perception, and fine motor coordination in a population of children with high levels of Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder

BackgroundVisual-motor integration (VMI) skills are essential for successful academic performance, but to date no studies have assessed these skills in a population-based cohort of Australian Aboriginal children who, like many children in other remote, disadvantaged communities, consistently underperform academically. Furthermore, many children in remote areas of Australia have prenatal alcohol exposure (PAE) and Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder (FASD), which are often associated with VMI deficits. MethodsVMI, visual perception, and fine motor coordination were assessed using The Beery-Buktenica Developmental Test of Visual-Motor Integration, including its associated subtests of Visual Perception and Fine Motor Coordination, in a cohort of predominantly Australian Aboriginal children (7.5–9.6 years, n=108) in remote Western Australia to explore whether PAE adversely affected test performance. Cohort results were reported, and comparisons made between children i) without PAE; ii) with PAE (no FASD); and iii) FASD. The prevalence of moderate (≤16th percentile) and severe (≤2nd percentile) impairment was established. ResultsMean VMI scores were ‘below average’ (M=87.8±9.6), and visual perception scores were ‘average’ (M=97.6±12.5), with no differences between groups. Few children had severe VMI impairment (1.9%), but moderate impairment rates were high (47.2%). Children with FASD had significantly lower fine motor coordination scores and higher moderate impairment rates (M=87.9±12.5; 66.7%) than children without PAE (M=95.1±10.7; 23.3%) and PAE (no FASD) (M=96.1±10.9; 15.4%). ConclusionsAboriginal children living in remote Western Australia have poor VMI skills regardless of PAE or FASD. Children with FASD additionally had fine motor coordination problems. VMI and fine motor coordination should be assessed in children with PAE, and included in FASD diagnostic assessments.

What Preschool Classroom Experiences Are Associated With Whether Children Improve in Visuomotor Integration?

ABSTRACTResearch Findings: This study examined the contribution of several class-room experience measures (classroom characteristics, teacher characteristics, and teacher–child interactions) to preschoolers’ improvement in visuomotor integration. Children (N = 467) ranged in age from 3 to 5 years old and were enrolled in 115 classrooms in 5 U.S. states. Children’s visuomotor integration was measured twice (on average 5.2 months apart) using the Beery-Buktenica Developmental Test of Visual-Motor Integration (visuomotor integration subtest). Hierarchical linear models controlling for background characteristics and inhibitory control showed that children improved more in visuomotor integration when they were in classrooms with fewer 3-year-olds, when their teacher had at least a bachelor’s degree, and when teachers demonstrated high quality in their interactions. Practice or Policy: Visuomotor integration, and specifically the ability to copy designs with a writing utensil, is a robust indicator of children’s school readiness and longitudinal achievement. U.S. preschoolers gained more on visuomotor integration in classrooms with fewer 3-year-old children that were taught by a college-educated teacher and when such classrooms provided high-quality organizational and instructional interactions. These results expand the outcomes linked to early childhood education experiences and emphasize the need for well-prepared early childhood teachers who interact with children effectively.

Validity and Reliability of the Developmental Test of Visual Perception – Third Edition (DTVP-3)

ABSTRACTThe Developmental Test of Visual Perception – Third Edition (DTVP-3) is a recently published revision of a visual perceptual test from the United States, frequently used by occupational therapists. It is important that tests have adequate documented reliability and validity and are evaluated in cross-cultural contexts. The purpose of the study was to assess the reliability and validity of the DTVP-3 when completed by a group of Australian participants. Thirty-nine typically developing children 6–8 years of age completed the DTVP-3 and the Developmental Test of Visual-Motor Integration – 6th edition (VMI-6). The internal consistency of the DVTP-3 was assessed using Cronbach alpha coefficients and the DTVP-3's convergent validity was examined by correlating it with the VMI-6 and its two supplementary tests. The five DTVP-3 subscales’ Cronbach alpha coefficients ranged from.60 to.80 while its three composite indexes had coefficients all at the.80 level. The VMI-6 was significantly correlated with the DTVP-3 Figure Ground and Visual Closure subscales and the Motor-Reduced Visual Perception Index (MRVPI). The VMI-6 Visual Perception Supplementary Test was significantly correlated with the DTVP-3 Figure Ground, Visual Closure, Form Constancy, MRVPI, and General Visual Perception Index. The DTVP-3 exhibited acceptable levels of internal consistency and moderate levels of convergent validity with the VMI-6 when completed by a group of Australian children.

Visual motor skills and reading fluency: a correlational study

According to Van Hoorn, reading and writing skills involve adequate performance in visual–motor coordination, motor planning, cognitive and perceptual skills, and accurate processing of tactile and kinesthetic information. Scientific instruments aimed at assessing visual motor integration can be used for early identification of difficulties in reading and writing skills. The Beery-Buktenica Developmental Test of Visual-Motor Integration (VMI), in particular, allows to assess the level of development of skills such as perception, mental representation, motor planning and graphic reproduction. With regard to fluency of reading, the measure that best describes reading skills required in the various life contexts is given, according to Cornoldi, by the evaluation of the speed and accuracy of reading. The Prove di Lettura (MT-2 Reading Test) are the most popular instrument, for the Italian language, which assesses reading literacy in terms of fluency (speed and accuracy). This paper proposes a correlational study between the results obtained by administering MT2 and VMI tests to a group of students from a lower secondary school, in order to experimentally attest the opportunity to use the VMI as a tool for early detection of visuo-spatial related difficulties in learning to read.

The association between measures of visual perception, visual-motor integration, and in-hand manipulation skills of school-age children and their manuscript handwriting speed

Introduction The aim of this study was to investigate whether measures of visual perception, visual-motor integration, and in-hand manipulation skills of school-age children were associated with their manuscript handwriting speed. Method A convenience sample of 39 typically developing Australian students aged six to eight years completed the Beery–Buktenica Developmental Test of Visual-Motor Integration – 6th edition (DTVMI), the Developmental Test of Visual Perception – 3rd edition (DTVP-3), the Test of In-Hand Manipulation – Revised (TIHM-R), and the Handwriting Speed Test (HST). Spearman rho correlations and multi-linear regression analyses were completed to analyze the data. Results Significant correlations were found between visual perception, visual-motor integration, and in-hand manipulation skills and total letters written and total letters per minute. Regression analyses indicated that, when modeled together, the DTVP-3 eye–hand coordination and visual closure subscales and the TIHM-R were significant predictors of total letters written accounting for 25.5% of the variance. The DTVP-3 copying and visual closure subscales and the TIHM-R were predictive of total letters written per minute, with the TIHM-R making a significant unique contribution of 9.1% to the total variance of 26%. Conclusion Visual perception abilities, specifically visual closure skills, plus in-hand manipulation skills appear to be significant predictors of children’s printing speed and need to be assessed and potentially targeted for skill remediation when working with school-age children who present with manuscript handwriting difficulties.

Beery VMI performance in autism spectrum disorder

Few studies have examined the visuomotor integration (VMI) abilities of individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). An all-male sample consisting of 56 ASD participants (ages 3–23 years) and 36 typically developing (TD) participants (ages 4–26 years) completed the Beery-Buktenica Developmental Test of Visual-Motor Integration (Beery VMI) as part of a larger neuropsychological battery. Participants were also administered standardized measures of intellectual functioning and the Social Responsiveness Scale (SRS), which assesses autism and autism-like traits. The ASD group performed significantly lower on the Beery VMI and on all IQ measures compared to the TD group. VMI performance was significantly correlated with full scale IQ (FSIQ), performance IQ (PIQ), and verbal IQ (VIQ) in the TD group only. However, when FSIQ was taken into account, no significant Beery VMI differences between groups were observed. Only one TD participant scored 1.5 standard deviations (SDs) below the Beery VMI normative sample mean, in comparison to 21% of the ASD sample. As expected, the ASD group was rated as having significantly higher levels of social impairment on the SRS compared to the TD group across all major domains. However, level of functioning on the SRS was not associated with Berry VMI performance. These findings demonstrate that a substantial number of individuals with ASD experience difficulties compared to TD in performing VMI-related tasks, and that VMI is likely affected by general cognitive ability. The fact that lowered Beery VMI performance occurred only within a subset of individuals with ASD and did not correlate with SRS would indicate that visuomotor deficits are not a core feature of ASD, even though they present at a higher rate of impairment than observed in TD participants.

Performance of the Visual-Motor Integration of Preschool Children in Hong Kong

Objective/Background The Beery–-Buktenica Developmental Test of Visual-Motor Integration (VMI) is an important assessment tool used by occupational therapists working with children. The aims of this study were (a) to identify performance differences in the VMI between Hong Kong preschool children and their counterparts in the United States; (b) to develop local references for the VMI (fifth edition) for the preschool children in Hong Kong; and (c) to examine the dimensionality and the hierarchical ordering of the VMI items using the Rasch Measurement Model (RMM). Methods A total of 288 healthy children aged between 3 years and 6 months and 5 years and 11 months were recruited from 54 local preschools in Hong Kong using the multistage sampling method. VMI was administered to the children individually at their preschools. Results Hong Kong preschool children were significantly better than those in the United States in VMI performance (p &lt; .001). The results of the RMM showed that the VMI fell within the acceptable levels of unidimensionality. Most items were found to be hierarchically ordered, although a few items were found to have the same level of difficulty. Conclusion The local reference developed in this study yielded additional insights for occupational therapists and psychologists with regard to the application of the VMI (fifth edition) for Hong Kong children aged between 3 years and 6 months and 5 years and 11 months.

Concurrent Validity of the Developmental Test of Visual-Motor Integration in a Sample of Children with Mild Intellectual Disabilities

Concurrent Validity of the Developmental Test of Visual-Motor Integration in a Sample of Children with Mild Intellectual Disabilities

Interrelationships between visual-motor integration, visual perception, motor coordination and object control skills of Grade 1-learners : NW-child study

The aim of this study was to determine the interrelationship of visual-motor integration, visual perception and motor coordination with object control skills in Grade 1-learners in the North-West Province of South Africa. This study is based on only the baseline data of a longitudinal study (NW-CHILD study) in progress. The Grade 1-learners (N=806) had a mean age of 6.84±0.39 years. The Developmental Test of Visual-Motor Integration (4th ed.) (VMI), was used to evaluate visual skills, while the Test of Gross Motor Development-2 evaluated six object control skills. There was a statistical significant (p≤0.01) association between VMI, two object control skills and total score for object control skills. Visual perception had the highest correlation with all the object control skills where a statistically significant (p≤0.05) association with five object control skills and the total score was obtained. Motor coordination had small but significant correlations with two object control skills. Understanding the influence that VMI, visual perception and motor coordination have on ball handling skills should enable practitioners to address them appropriately during the early years.

Psychometric Properties of the Canadian Little Developmental Coordination Disorder Questionnaire for Preschool Children

ABSTRACTAims: Test the psychometric properties and cut-off scores for the Canadian Little Developmental Coordination Disorder Questionnaire (Little DCDQ), which screens for coordination difficulties in children aged 3 to 4 years. Methods: Parents of children with typical development (n = 108) and children at risk for motor problems (n = 245) completed the questionnaire. A subgroup (n = 119) of children was tested with the Movement Assessment Battery for Children-2 (MABC-2) and the Beery–Buktenica Developmental Test of visual-motor integration (VMI) to determine motor impairment (MI). Results: Test-retest reliability (r = 0.956, p < .001) and internal consistency (Cronbach's alpha = 0.94) were high. Construct validity was supported by a factor analysis and significant difference in scores of children who were typically developing and were at risk. Concurrent validity was evaluated for the children who received standardized motor testing, with significant difference between children with and without MI. Discriminant function analysis showed that all 15 items were able to distinguish the two groups. The questionnaire correlated well with the MABC-2 and VMI. Validity as a screening tool was assessed using logistic regression modeling (X2(5) = 25.87, p < .001) and receiver operating curves, establishing optimal cut-off values with adequate sensitivity. Conclusions: The Little DCDQ is a reliable, valid instrument for early identification of children with motor difficulties.

Predictive validity of kindergarten assessments on handwriting readiness.

We investigated the predictive value of a new kindergarten assessment of handwriting readiness on handwriting performance in first grade as evaluated by the Systematic Screening for Handwriting Difficulties (Dutch abbreviation: SOS). The kindergarten assessment consisted of the Writing Readiness Inventory Tool In Context (WRITIC), the Beery-Buktenica Developmental Test of Visual-Motor Integration (Beery™VMI) and the Nine-Hole Peg Test (9-HPT). The WRITIC evaluates in kindergarten children (aged 5-6 years) prewriting skills, the Beery™VMI and 9-HPT evaluate visual motor integration and fine-motor coordination, all elements important for handwriting readiness. In kindergarten, 109 children (55 boys; mean age 70 months, SD 4.8 months) were tested with the WRITIC, Beery™VMI and 9-HPT and one year later in first grade (mean age 85 months, SD 4.5 months) with the SOS. A multivariable linear mixed model was used to identify variables that independently predict outcomes in first grade (SOS): baseline scores on WRITIC-TP, Beery™VMI, 9-HPT, 'sustained attention,' 'gender,' 'age' and 'intervention' in the intermediate period. The results showed that WRITIC-TP, Beery™VMI, and 9-HPT, 'sustained attention,' 'gender' and 'intervention' had all predictive value on the handwriting outcome. Thereby WRITIC-TP was the main predictor for outcome of SOS-Quality, and Beery™VMI and 9-HPT were the main predictors of SOS-Speed. This kindergarten assessment of WRITIC-TP, Beery™VMI, and 9-HPT contributes to the detection of children at risk for developing handwriting problems.

Deficient motor timing in children with neurofibromatosis type 1

Neurofibromatosis type 1 (NF1) is one of the most common single-gene disorders affecting fine and visual-motor skills. This case-control study investigated motor timing as a possible related performance deficit in children with NF1. A visual-motor reaction time (VRT) test was administered in 20 NF1 children (mean age 9 years 7 months) and 20 age- and gender-matched typically developing (TD) children. Copying and tracing performance were evaluated using the Beery-Buktenica Developmental Test of Visual-Motor Integration (Beery VMI). Children with NF1 responded with an increased reaction time (RT) to temporally predictive stimuli compared to TD children, whereas RT at unpredictive stimuli did not differ between groups. Motor timing indexed by the RT decrease at predictive stimuli significantly associated with the Beery VMI copy and tracing outcomes. Deficient motor timing as an actual symptom may add to further research on the pathogenesis of NF1-associated motor impairment and the development of more effective treatment.

Developing Bilateral and Spatial Concepts in Primary School-aged Children: An Empirical Evaluation of the Anker Bilateral Spatial System

Background: Visual-spatial and visual-motor perceptual difficulties contribute to school-aged learning problems. Hence, a need exists to address children’s visual-spatial and visual-motor perceptual difficulties as early as possible in the child’s school career. Thus, this study reports on the evaluation of the Anker Bilateral Spatial System’s (ABSS) effectiveness in remediating primary school children’s perceptual difficulties. Method: Thirty-one children (17 boys and 14 girls) aged 6 to 12 years who had been identified by their classroom teacher as having observable visual-spatial and visual-motor perceptual difficulties participated in a 10-week pre/posttest intervention study. The study’s pre/posttest assessments included the Developmental Test of Visual-Motor Integration (VMI), the Spatial Awareness Skills Program Test (SASP), and two subscales of the School Function Assessment (SFA). Results: Paired t-test statistics were calculated on the pre/post intervention scores. Paired t-test statistics calculated (p = .05) that significant change had occurred in the writing speed (t = -3.978, p < .001). Conclusion: Given that the study’s Year 1 students made progress in more areas of remediation than did any other year level, it is evident that the ABSS is particularly effective with this year group. Comments Dr. Janet Richmond is currently a lecturer at Edith Cowan University in occupational therapy in the School of Exercise and Health Sciences. Dr. Richmond’s research interests are visual-perceptual development, intervention and remediation in children and adults, attention and cognitive disorders, and aging and disability. She has published two book chapters and additional articles related to her areas of research. Dr. Myra Taylor is a seasoned Research Fellow currently working in Edith Cowan University’s Lifespan Resilience Research Group in the School of Psychology and Social Science. Dr. Taylor’s research interests include infant and child development; child and adolescent attentional, emotional, behavioral, and learning disorders; family resilience; antisociality; adolescent and youth street violence; and criminal offending. She has published a number of books, book chapters, and articles in these and related areas. Ms. Sarah Evans is an occupational therapist who has been working in pediatrics for seven years. She works mostly with primary school children and is passionate about helping each child reach their potential. Ms. Evans understands the importance of evidence-based practice and fervently supports research that may benefit her clients.

VMI-VI and BG-II KOPPITZ-2 for Youth With HFASDs and Typical Youth

The visual-motor skills of 90 youth with high-functioning autism spectrum disorders (HFASDs) and 51 typically developing (TD) youth were assessed using the Beery–Buktenica Developmental Test of Visual-Motor Integration, Sixth Edition (VMI-VI) and Koppitz Developmental Scoring System for the Bender–Gestalt Test–Second Edition (KOPPITZ-2). Within-group comparisons (for both samples) yielded substantive mean differences between the KOPPITZ-2 composite and VMI-VI composite, Visual Perception and Motor Coordination sections of the VMI-VI, and VMI-VI composite and either VMI-VI supplemental tests. Between-group differences were assessed in a matched subsample of 33 participants from each group. The HFASD group scored significantly lower than the TD group on test sections requiring greater motor ability (i.e., VMI-VI composite, VMI-VI Motor Coordination, KOPPITZ-2 composite, and Bender–Gestalt Visual-Motor Test–Second Edition [BG-II]). Correlations between the KOPPITZ-2 composite and VMI-VI composite were .56 for the HFASD and .36 for the TD samples.

Examining the relationship between motor assessments and handwriting consistency in children with and without probable developmental coordination disorder.

Children with Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) often experience difficulties in handwriting. The current study examined the relationships between three motor assessments and the spatial and temporal consistency of handwriting. Twelve children with probable DCD and 29 children from 7 to 12 years who were typically developing wrote the lowercase letters "e" and "l" in cursive and printed forms repetitively on a digitizing tablet. Three behavioral assessments, including the Beery-Buktenica Developmental Test of Visual-Motor Integration (VMI), the Minnesota Handwriting Assessment (MHA) and the Movement Assessment Battery for Children (MABC), were administered. Children with probable DCD had low scores on the VMI, MABC and MHA and showed high temporal, not spatial, variability in the letter-writing task. Their MABC scores related to temporal consistency in all handwriting conditions, and the Legibility scores in their MHA correlated with temporal consistency in cursive "e" and printed "l". It appears that children with probable DCD have prominent difficulties on the temporal aspect of handwriting. While the MHA is a good product-oriented assessment for measuring handwriting deficits, the MABC shows promise as a good assessment for capturing the temporal process of handwriting in children with DCD.

Writing Readiness Inventory Tool in Context (WRITIC): Reliability and convergent validity

This study examined the reliability and convergent validity of the Writing Readiness Inventory Tool in Context, a measurement evaluating writing readiness in kindergarten children (aged from five to six years). Test-retest reliability was established with 59 children, inter-rater reliability with 72 children and convergent validity with 119 children. All participants were typically developing kindergarten children. Convergent validity was examined with the Beery-Buktenica Developmental Test of Visual-Motor Integration and the Nine-Hole Peg Test. We found excellent test-retest and inter-rater reliability on the future norm-referenced subdomain 'Task performance' of Writing Readiness Inventory Tool in Context with intra-class correlation coefficient ranging from 0.92 to 0.95. On the other criterion-referenced subdomains, we found fair to good reliability with intra-class correlation coefficient ranging from 0.70 to 1.0 and weighted Kappa ranging from 0.30 to 0.89. Correlations with the Beery-Buktenica Developmental Test of Visual-Motor Integration and the Nine-Hole Peg Test were moderate with rs ranging from 0.34 to 0.40 and these are comparable with correlations in other handwriting studies. Writing Readiness Inventory Tool in Context is an assessment of writing readiness that is stable over time and between raters. The expected moderate correlations with the Beery-Buktenica Developmental Test of Visual-Motor Integration and the Nine-Hole Peg Test support the construct of writing readiness.