Developmental Errors Research Articles

Exploring EFL learners` developmental errors in academic writing through face-to-Face and Computer-Mediated dynamic assessment

Theoretically grounded in Vygotsky`s sociocultural theory of mind, Dynamic Assessment (DA) provides researchers with the opportunity to investigate different aspects of learners` developmental trajectory, including the ways they overcome their errors. As a qualitative inquiry into the nature of errors reflecting learners` development in academic writing and the ways they are treated, this study examined the role of face-to-face (FTF) and Computer-Mediated (CM) contexts on the ways Iranian EFL learners dealt with their main developmental errors. In this study, the nature of developmental errors emerged out of the analysis of a writing corpus of four learners participating in a two-month DA based academic writing course. The learners` high-frequency errors were examined through the microgentic development method, which allows for investigating the moment to moment changes in learners` performance, to reveal the ways they were addressed in FTF and CM contexts of DA. The results highlighted the different effects of FTF and CM contexts on learners` pace, depth and permanency of development through not only employing different mediation forms but also encouraging the usage of different mediational tools. The findings indicated that while FTF mediation led to an inclination toward collaborative writing, CM mediation increased learners` engagement with their written texts by focusing more on difficult items and transferring development to other tasks and situations which, in turn, illustrates their progression towards self-regulation. The findings of the study shed light on the potentials of DA in guiding learners` struggle to overcome their academic writing developmental errors in both CM and FTF contexts.

Do junctional neural tube defect and segmental spinal dysgenesis have the same pathoembryological background?

Junctional neural tube defect (JNTD) is a recently introduced form of congenital spinal dysraphism that is characterized by functional disconnection between the primary and secondary neural tubes. The upper and lower cords appeared to be connected by a non-functioning band-like structure. JNTD is suspected to arise from a developmental error not corresponding to either primary or secondary neurulation, but rather between the two neurulation processes. On the other hand, segmental spinal dysgenesis (SSD) is an older entity of spinal anomalies in which a segment of the spine and spinal cord does not develop properly. The anomaly had been noted for the bony abnormality, as it is the most prominent feature. Based on the recent encounter of two cases resembling both entities, we sought the possibility that the two diseases may have the same pathoembryogenesis. Based on the impression that the two entities share important features, we compared the details of the two anomalies. First, our two recently encountered cases of JNTD were described. Second, previous reports of SSD were comprehensively reviewed. The two cases had the essential anomaly of the neural structures satisfying the definition of JNTD, as well as the elaborate spinal deformity as seen in SSD. In the previous literature on SSD, it was recognized that in addition to the bone anomaly, disconnected spinal cord was present. Hence, the two entities seem to have many similar clinical and neuroimaging features. The dysgenic spinal level is similar, and the disconnection between the primary and secondary neural tubes is found in the two diseases. The two neural tubes are connected by a band-like structure, with severe stenosis of the spinal canal at the level of the band. Both entities show segmental anomalies of the vertebrae in the thoracolumbar region, especially in the posterior element. Although the extent of shared features seems high, the previously suggested hypothetical pathoembryogenesis of SSD did not involve the process of junctional neurulation. We suggest that SSD shares the same origin as JNTD, and the bony abnormality may be a secondary phenomenon to the core error during neural tube development. We propose that JNTD and SSD may be the same entity, originating from an error during junctional neurulation. As there is controversy regarding the treatment strategy for both entities, unified accumulation of clinical experience and analysis may help improve the management of patients.

Persistent Neurobehavioral Markers of Developmental Morphosyntax Errors in Adults.

Purpose Child language acquisition is marked by an optional infinitive period (ages 2-4 years) during which children use nonfinite (infinitival) verb forms and finite verb forms interchangeably in grammatical contexts that require finite forms. In English, children's errors include omissions of past tense /-ed/ and 3rd-person singular /-s/. This language acquisition period typically ends by the age of 4 years, but it persists in children with language impairments. It is unknown if adults still process optional infinitives differently than other kinds of morphosyntax errors. Method We compared behavior and functional brain activation during grammaticality judgments across sentences with developmental optional infinitive tense/agreement errors ("Yesterday I play the song"), nondevelopmental agreement errors ("He am tall") that do not occur in typical child language acquisition, and grammatically correct sentences. Results Adults (N = 25) were significantly slower and less accurate in judging sentences with developmental errors relative to other sentences. Sentences with developmental errors yielded greater activation in bilateral inferior frontal gyri relative to nondevelopmental error sentences in both auditory and visual modalities. Conclusions These findings suggest that the heightened computational demands for finiteness extend well beyond early childhood and continue to exert their influence on grammatical mental and brain function in adulthood.

Phonological awareness and sonority in Greek children: developmental data and clinical perspectives

ABSTRACT Phonological awareness is closely related to reading acquisition and it is often the focus of the therapy services provided by speech-language pathologists and special education teachers. In this study, we investigate whether sonority theory can account for the developmental patterns of phoneme awareness skills in Greek. To that end, 40 preschool and first grade children carried out an offline metaphonological task that involved the initial consonant deletion of two-consonant clusters. Overall, children’s performance was in line with the sonority sequencing principle (SSP); consonant clusters that display a maximal rise in sonority were easier to manipulate compared to clusters with minimal sonority difference or SSP-violating clusters. Affricates generated the highest number of errors, a finding that strengthens the singleton status of /ts/ and /dz/ in Greek. Increased error rates were also found for /ps/, /pç/, /ks/, a fact attributed to both to their spelling and sonority characteristics. Conclusively, it is claimed that the developmental error patterns reported in this study can be used to inform appraisal and treatment protocols of phonological awareness in Greek, by organizing metaphonological tasks based on the presumed level of difficulty of the items tested and/or treated.

P1785Whole exome sequencing unravels new genes associated with mitral valve prolapse

Abstract Background Several studies have suggested a familial clustering of mitral valve prolapse (MVP), especially for Barlow disease (BD), which is regarded as the effect of genetic or developmental errors. However, the genetic etiology of MVP, in particular BD, is largely unknown. So far only three genes have been identified: FLNA, DCHS1 and PLD1. Purpose The aim of this study was to identify genes associated with MVP using whole exome sequencing (WES). Methods Patients with MVP, who were classified as BD and/or had a positive family history for MVP, were referred for genetic counseling and WES. In total, 106 unrelated probands were included to identify potentially pathogenic variants in a set of 551 genes associated with cardiovascular development and/or diseases. The population databases Genome Aggregation and WES data from 110 parents of children with mental retardation were used as controls. Variants were analyzed using prediction programs, frequency in the population database and literature search. Variants were divided into the following categories: likely benign, variant of unknown significance or likely pathogenic. Results Thirteen percent (14/106) of the probands had a likely pathogenic variant in seven different genes: DCHS1 (1x), DSP (1x), HCN4 (2x), MYH6 (1x), TMEM67 (1x), TRPS1 (1x) and TTN (7x); the DSP, MYH6 and HCN4 variants cosegregated in affected relatives. None of the 110 parents of children with mental retardation had a likely pathogenic variant in these seven genes. In addition, 31% (33/106) of the probands harbored a variant of unknown significance in 23 different genes, including the genes DSP, FLNA, MYH6 and TTN (Fig). Remarkable, one variant of unknown significance in the FBN2 gene was shared among three unrelated probands and did not occur in population databases. Conclusion WES analysis conducted in probands with MVP using a large panel of genes associated with cardiac development and/or disease confirmed previously known causative genes (DCHS1) and expanded the cardiac phenotype of genes originally associated with cardiomyopathy (DSP, HCN4, MYH6 and TTN). This study is the first study that described the association between MVP and the genes DSP, MYH6 and TTN although the pathogenesis is still unknown. This high yield of likely pathogenic variants emphasizes the importance of genetic screening in MVP patients.

Repressive Gene Regulation Synchronizes Development with Cellular Metabolism

Metabolic conditions affect the developmental tempo of animals. Developmental gene regulatory networks (GRNs) must therefore synchronize their dynamics with a variable timescale. We find that layered repression of genes couples GRN output with variable metabolism. When repressors of transcription or mRNA and protein stability are lost, fewer errors in Drosophila development occur when metabolism is lowered. We demonstrate the universality of this phenomenon by eliminating the entire microRNA family of repressors and find that development to maturity can be largely rescued when metabolism is reduced. Using a mathematical model that replicates GRN dynamics, we find that lowering metabolism suppresses the emergence of developmental errors by curtailing the influence of auxiliary repressors on GRN output. We experimentally show that gene expression dynamics are less affected by loss of repressors when metabolism is reduced. Thus, layered repression provides robustness through error suppression and may provide an evolutionary route to a shorter reproductive cycle.

An Analysis On Pronunciation Errors Made By First Semester Students Of English Education Department STKIP CBN


 Abstract :This study is conducted to find out the pronunciation errors made by the first semester students of English Education Department in STKIP CBN. In conducting the data, the researcher gave the pre-test to the informants, then; the researcher recorded the performances and transcribed the data. The secondary data was gathered from the interview. Based on the data analysis The researcher counted that there are nine types of errors pronunciation made by the subjects. The first error is the subjects substituted a vowel /æ/ and six consonants /kj/,/tʃ/,/ʃ/,/dʒ/ and /ʒ/ with Indonesian sounds. The second error is the subjects substituted some English vowels into Indonesian vowel. The third error is word cognates cases. The fourth is language interference. The fifth is pronouncing the silent consonant /h/. The sixth error is Deleting or omitting some consonants that appeared at the end of some English words. The seventh error is the subjects pronounced the silent consonant /t/ in the word “often”. The eighth error is the subjects added the consonant /r/ at the word, that word doesn’t required the consonant /r/. The last error is some subjects seemed to generalize the pronunciation of the past tense morpheme which is ended by a bound morpheme /ed/. This research is founded that there are three causes of students’ pronunciation error made in speaking English. The first is an interference errors, the second is an intra lingual errors and the last is a developmental error.

An Analysis on Pronunciation Errors Made By First Semester Students of English Department STKIP CBN

This study is conducted to find out the pronunciation errors made by the first semester students of English Education Department in STKIP CBN. In conducting the data, the researcher gave the pre-test to the informants, then; the researcher recorded the performances and transcribed the data. The secondary data was gathered from the interview. Based on the data analysis The researcher counted that there are nine types of errors pronunciation made by the subjects. The first error is the subjects substituted a vowel /æ/ and six consonants /kj/,/tʃ/,/ʃ/,/dʒ/ and /ʒ/ with Indonesian sounds. The second error is the subjects substituted some English vowels into Indonesian vowel. The third error is word cognates cases. The fourth is language interference. The fifth is pronouncing the silent consonant /h/. The sixth error is Deleting or omitting some consonants that appeared at the end of some English words. The seventh error is the subjects pronounced the silent consonant /t/ in the word “often”. The eighth error is the subjects added the consonant /r/ at the word, that word doesn’t required the consonant /r/. The last error is some subjects seemed to generalize the pronunciation of the past tense morpheme which is ended by a bound morpheme /ed/. This research is founded that there are three causes of students’ pronunciation error made in speaking English. The first is an interference errors, the second is an intra lingual errors and the last is a developmental error.

Present tense verb morphology of Spanish HL and L2 children in dual immersion

AbstractWe provide a snapshot of childhood morphology development in our investigation of two profiles of bilinguals (age 9–10) in an English-Spanish dual immersion academic setting: Spanish heritage language (SHL,n = 21) and second language (SL2,n = 41) children. Three tasks were given to the 62 bilinguals and 15 age-matched controls (Spanish first language, SL1): oral comprehension of 20 singular-plural present verbs, written sentence production of 10 similar verbs, and a meaning-focused writing task. SHL children were comparable to controls in production of number agreement, and showed no asymmetry between comprehension and production. SL2 learners showed lower accuracy than both SHL and SL1 children. A similar pattern was observed when person agreement and tense, aspect, mood and vowel errors were considered. The most common error among SHL and SL2 children was overregularization of stem vowels, a typical developmental error. The Feature Reassembly model of grammar can accommodate the range of possibilities represented by the data we present.

Pattern of Ruptured Ectopic Pregnancy in a Secondary Level Healthcare Facility

Tubal rupture following an ectopic pregnancy is usually associated with profound hemorrhage which can lead to an unstable hemodynamic state that can risk the life of the patient. To explore the pattern of ruptured ectopic pregnancy in a secondary level healthcare facility, this Cross-sectional study was conducted among 100 ruptured ectopic pregnancy cases at 250 Bedded General Hospital, Tangail from January to November 2017. Cases were diagnosed by taking history (short period of amenorrhoea, acute lower abdominal pain and per-vaginal bleeding), clinical examination and relevant investigations (per-abdominal ultrasonography, TVS, CBC, serum ß-hCG level). Postoperatively, all the patients were followed up meticulously till discharge. The mean age of patients was 33.5(±7.8) years and the highest incidence (43%) was recorded in the age group of 26-30 years. All the patients were managed surgically with no record of case fatality. The most common site for the extra-uterine pregnancy was the tubal area (80%), 13% were ovarian pregnancy, 2% were abdominal and 5% were in other sites (rudimentary horn of uterus, cessarian scar). Chronic pelvic inflammatory disease was the most common risk factor (70%). Other risk factors such as, H/O receiving subfertility treatment (assisted reproduction/ ovulation inducing drugs), previous ectopic pregnancy, developmental errors of uterus, caesarean scar pregnancy and unknown cause were 10.0%, 6.0%, 3.0%, 3.0% and 8.0% respectively. The rise of serum ß-hCG level was found ≤1500 IU/L in 72% and >1500 IU/L in 28% of patients. Tubal area found to be the most common site of ruptured ectopic pregnancy in this study and chronic pelvic inflammatory disease was the most common risk factor followed by undergoing subfertility treatment. Surgical intervention was the choice of treatment in all cases with zero fatality recorded.
 Bangladesh Med J. 2019 May; 48 (2): 20-23

More Than the Eye Can See: A Computational Model of Color Term Acquisition and Color Discrimination.

We explore the following two cognitive questions regarding crosslinguistic variation in lexical semantic systems: Why are some linguistic categories-that is, the associations between a term and a portion of the semantic space-harder to learn than others? How does learning a language-specific set of lexical categories affect processing in that semantic domain? Using a computational word-learner, and the domain of color as a testbed, we investigate these questions by modeling both child acquisition of color terms and adult behavior on a non-verbal color discrimination task. A further goal is to test an approach to lexical semantic representation based on the principle that the more languages label any two situations with the same word, the more conceptually similar those two situations are. We compare such a crosslinguistically based semantic space to one based on perceptual similarity. Our computational model suggests a mechanistic explanation for the interplay between term frequency and the semantic closeness of learned categories in developmental error patterns for color terms. Our model also indicates how linguistic relativity effects could arise from an acquisition mechanism that yields language-specific topologies for the same semantic domain. Moreover, we find that the crosslinguistically inspired semantic space supports these results at least as well as-and in some aspects better than-the purely perceptual one, thus confirming our approach as a practical and principled method for lexical semantic representation in cognitive modeling.

A comprehensive review of the diagnosis and management of congenital scoliosis.

To provide the reader with a comprehensive but concise understanding of congenital scoliosis METHODS: We have undertaken to summarize available literature on the pathophysiology, epidemiology, and management of congenital scoliosis. Congenital scoliosis represents 10% of pediatric spine deformity and is a developmental error in segmentation, formation, or a combination of both leading to curvature of the spine. Treatment options are complicated by balancing growth potential with curve severity. Often associated abnormalities of cardiac, genitourinary, or intraspinal systems are concurrent and should be evaluated as part of the diagnostic work-up. Management balances the risk of progression, growth potential, lung development/function, and associated risks. Surgical treatment options involve growth-permitting systems or fusions. Congenital scoliosis is a complex spinal problem associated with many other anomalous findings. Treatment options are diverse but enable optimization of management and care of these children.

Associated Valvular Heart Diseases among ASD Patients Undergoing Surgical Repair

Background: Congenital heart diseases (CHD) are one of the most common developmental errors in humans.Objectives: The purpose of the present study was to see the frequencies of various types of atrial septal defect (ASD) and associated cardiovascular disorders in patients undergoing surgical repair.Methodology: This cross-sectional study was conducted on patients undergoing surgical repair at the National Institute of Cardiovascular Diseases (NICVD) or the National Heart Foundation and Research Institute (NHF & RI) in Dhaka, during the period of July, 2010 to June, 2011. Patients presented with ASD at any age of both sexes were selected as study population. Diagnoses were revealed with echocardiography and confirmed preoperatively by registered cardiac surgeons.Results: The morphological types of ASD were ostium secundum type in 96% cases and sinus venosus type in 4% cases. Atrial septal defects were either small or larger defects associated with pulmonary hypertension in 38 (76%) cases, varying degree of tricuspid regurgitation was seen in 33 (66%) patients and dilated pulmonary artery was noted in 24 (48%) cases. Ventricular septal defect in 4 (8%) cases, tricuspid atresia in 2 (4%) cases and mitral valve prolapse in 6 (12%) cases were also observed.Conclusions: Ostium secundum type of ASD is found to be the commonest type of ASDJournal of Current and Advance Medical Research 2018;5(2):60-63

Atrioventricular canal defect and genetic syndromes: The unifying role of sonic hedgehog.

The atrioventricular canal defect (AVCD) is a congenital heart defect (CHD) frequently associated with extracardiac anomalies (75%). Previous observations from a personal series of patients with AVCD and "polydactyly syndromes" showed that the distinct morphology and combination of AVCD features in some of these syndromes is reminiscent of the cardiac phenotype found in heterotaxy, a malformation complex previously associated with functional cilia abnormalities and aberrant Hedgehog (Hh) signaling. Hh signaling coordinates multiple aspects of left-right lateralization and cardiovascular growth. Being active at the venous pole the secondary heart field (SHF) is essential for normal development of dorsal mesenchymal protrusion and AVCD formation and septation. Experimental data show that perturbations of different components of the Hh pathway can lead to developmental errors presenting with partially overlapping manifestations and AVCD as a common denominator. We review the potential role of Hh signaling in the pathogenesis of AVCD in different genetic disorders. AVCD can be viewed as part of a "developmental field," according to the concept that malformations can be due to defects in signal transduction cascades or pathways, as morphogenetic units which may be altered by Mendelian mutations, aneuploidies, and environmental causes.

Interlanguage Errors Awareness in English as a Foreign Language and Arabic as a First Language in a Saudi Context

Developmental errors in L2 Learning are a systemic necessity which is unfortunately interpreted as source of annoyance that could hinder the learning process by the learners. The purpose of the present study is to investigate the degree of awareness of L2 learners of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) and Arabic as Second Language (ASL) of errors they make at comparable proficiencies in the two languages for two groups of students. It is argued that error awareness is commensurate of explicit correction by teachers in the foreign language context, which lacks daily use of the language in a natural context, whereas it is developed through daily practice of the language in both comprehension and production in a second language context. The second context provides acquisition like situations for the learners. The author also hypothesizes that there will be more awareness of errors and an auto-correction in an acquisition fashion in a second language context than in a foreign language one. This research will be quantitative and will use a questionnaire which will investigate the learners’ awareness through their opinions and attitudes through explicit introspection about the types of errors, their pervasiveness, and their place in the mind of the learners.

UV-B susceptibility and photoreactivation in embryonic development of the two-spotted spider mite, Tetranychus urticae.

Developmental errors are often induced in the embryos of many organisms by environmental stress. Ultraviolet-B radiation (UV-B) is one of the most serious environmental stressors in embryonic development. Here, we investigated susceptibility to UV-B (0.5kJm-2) in embryos of the two-spotted spider mite, Tetranychus urticae, to examine the potential use of UV-B in control of this important agricultural pest worldwide. Peak susceptibility to UV-B (0% hatchability) was found in T. urticae eggs 36-48h after oviposition at 25°C, which coincides with the stages of morphogenesis forming the germ band and initial limb primordia. However, hatchability recovered to ~ 80% when eggs irradiated with UV-B were subsequently exposed to visible radiation (VIS) at 10.2kJm-2, driving photoreactivation (the photoenzymatic repair of DNA damage). The recovery effect decreased to 40-70% hatchability, depending on the embryonic developmental stage, when VIS irradiation was delayed for 4h after the end of exposure to UV-B. Thus UV-B damage to T. urticae embryos is critical, particularly in the early stages of morphogenesis, and photoreactivation functions to mitigate UV-B damage, even in the susceptible stages, but immediate VIS irradiation is needed after exposure to UV-B. These findings suggest that nighttime irradiation with UV-B can effectively kill T. urticae eggs without subsequent photoreactivation and may be useful in the physical control of this species.

A Byzantine Tarsal Coalition From A Byzantine Monastery

First described by Buffon in 1796, tarsal coalitions encompass any abnormal fibrous, cartilaginous, or bony coalition of any adjacent tarsal bones. Tarsal coalition results from developmental error or injury. Congenital tarsal coalitions arise early in gestation when fibrocartilaginous precursor tarsals fail to completely separate, with more extreme cases rarely occurring when the coalesced cartilage ossifies into fused bones during skeletal maturation (Cowell and Elener 1983). Milder, more common forms are subclinical and are often detected only as an incidental finding of medical imaging ordered for unrelated reasons, therefore the prevalence of tarsal coalition is unknown (Zaw and Calder 2010). However, large‐scale skeletal surveys of recent European‐Americans, recent South Africans of variable ancestry, and medieval Danes all yielded frequencies less than 4% (Case and Burnett 2012). More severe forms can entirely compromise normal mid‐ and rearfoot function and therefore disrupt gait and other locomotor behaviors (Zaw and Calder 2010, Case and Burnett 2012). We report here specimen EBND 6122, a nearly complete and totally, intricately synostotically fused left tarsus and metatarsals I–III recovered from the Byzantine monastery of St. Stephen's in Jerusalem (now the École Biblique et Archéologique Française and Couvent‐Saint Étienne), dating to the Fifth and Sixth Centuries CE. Because of the commingled skeletal deposition at this site, no other skeletal elements can be confidently associated with this individual's foot. We describe how this remarkable pathology affected the individual's gait; succinctly, lack of rear‐ and mid‐foot flexibility likely compromised the normal heel strike and midstance phases of the gait cycle. This specimen adds to the existing archaeological record of tarsal coalitions and is one of the most extreme examples of osseous tarsal coalition in either the clinical or archaeological literature.Support or Funding InformationThis work was supported by the University of Notre Dame and the Arkansas College of Osteopathic Medicine.This abstract is from the Experimental Biology 2018 Meeting. There is no full text article associated with this abstract published in The FASEB Journal.

The association between preaxial polydactyly and radial longitudinal deficiency in syndromic cases: a report on nine families.

IV.

Vascular anomalies. PartII: vascular malformations

Vascular malformations are congenital vascular anomalies with normal endothelial turnover, which can affect the whole vessel tree (arterial, capillary or lymphatic) both as isolated defects or as part of asyndrome. Developmental errors during embryogenesis, such as abnormal signaling processes that control the apoptosis, maturation and growth of vascular cells, lead to the persistence of vascular plexus cells with some degree of differentiation. Vascular malformations are usually present at birth, although symptoms or complications may be manifested later. Since the overwhelming majority are symptomatic, treatment is indicated which is often aimed only at improving the symptoms by controlling the size.

Analiza grešaka u pismenim zadacima iz engleskog jezika kod učenika prvog razreda Saobraćajno-tehničke škole u Zemunu

Seeing that tenses in the English language are distributed and perceived differently from the Serbian ones, this paper deals with the error analysis of tenses in the written tests of the first graders in the Traffic and Transport Engineering High School. The aim of this research is to determine the types of mistake, their sources and causes. The first part of the paper deals with the theory about error analysis, error description, its explanation and detailed error classification and the methodology, whereas the second one focuses on the research itself, the analysis and interpretation of results and the ways of error correction. Regarding error classifications, some authors define the same terms differently (developmental errors) and it is necessary to opt for one definition. In addition to this, in the literature the names of errors that spring from two different sources are not coined except for ambiguous errors (a combination of a developmental and interlingual error). In this paper such errors will be named ambiguous. As for methodology, 75 students aged 15-16 were involved in the study since the author was teaching these students. Therefore, the author can check whether some of the strategies in classroom were successful or not. The subjects enrolled on different vocational profiles and had a modest and low overall score. Most participants have got beginner and elementary level of English even though they had been learning it for eight years in primary school. Apart from the poor knowledge, other factors that impede the teaching and learning processes are undisciplined, unmotivated, uninterested, irresponsible and neglected students. To obtain data, the researcher used a written test including controlled practice - translation exercises and answering basic questions. The results have shown that students tend to make twice as many errors in the form than in the usage. According to the surface structure taxonomy, the former are mostly errors of omission, misformation and addition, the latter are almost all errors of misformation. Considering the source and cause, morphological errors are predominately ambiguous i.e. they cannot be explained using only one source. Surprisingly, the rest of morphological mistakes are intralingual due to false concepts hypothesized whereas there are only few interlingual ones. Errors in usage are almost all intralingual stemming from mostly ignorance of rule restriction and overgeneralization. To reduce the number of errors, an error is a starting point in teaching and learning. After the test, the teacher can interview students individually to answer the same questions to see whether they can notice their own mistakes and state the reason for such a choice. Thus the teacher can discriminate between errors and mistakes. The teacher can also give corrective feedback explicitly in explaining interlingual errors comparing mother tongue and target language and implicitly in explaining intralingual ones using minimal pairs. Given mixed ability classes, students can attend remedial classes where they will practise form-based tasks and additional classes where they will practise usage of tenses. Students can also be handed out pieces of paper containing their mistakes and can do peer-editing. Since dialogue in pairs proved successful, the teacher may include famous film catchphrases and introduce more exercises in terms of listening and speaking. However, at the end of the day, students should take responsibility for their own learning.