Developmental Coordination Disorder Research Articles

The relationship between birth weight and exclusive breastfeeding on the height of toddlers aged 1-5 years in Mekanderejo village, Kedungpring district, Lamongan regency

Background: The occurrence of stunting or height that is not appropriate for age in children under five is a health issue that needs attention in Indonesia. Stunting can cause growth failure, delays in cognitive and motor development, metabolic disorders, and reduced intellectual capacity. This study aims to analyze the relationship between birth weight and exclusive breastfeeding with the height of children aged 1-5 years in Mekanderejo Village. Methods: This type of research is an observational analytic study with a cross-sectional design. Data collection was conducted using primary data through questionnaires containing the characteristics of mothers and children and secondary data from the respondents' MCH books. Data analysis used the Chi-Square test. Results: The results of the study showed that there were still 8 (10.96%) children born with low birth weight, 28 (38.36%) children with a history of not being exclusively breastfed, and 6 (8.22%) children with very short height. The bivariate Chi-Square test results showed a p-value of 0.035 (<0.05), indicating a significant relationship between birth weight and child height, and a p-value of 0.047 (<0.05), indicating a significant relationship between exclusive breastfeeding and child height. Conclusion: These data indicate a relationship between birth weight and exclusive breastfeeding with the height of children aged 1-5 years in Mekanderejo Village.

Virtual reality-based interventions improve balance skills in children with developmental coordination disorder: systematic review and meta-analysis.

Virtual reality-based interventions (VRBI) are a gamified approach to therapy that can improve balance and motor skills in children diagnosed with Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD). The aim was to investigate the effectiveness of VRBI in improving balance and motor skills in children with DCD. According to PRISMA guidelines, meta-analyses were conducted by searching randomized controlled trials (RCTs) that investigated the effect of VRBI on balance and motor skills in children with DCD. The global search was carried out in PubMed, SCOPUS, WOS, CINAHL and PEDro during the period from April 1st to 24th, 2024, without publication date restrictions. Standardized mean difference (SMD) and its 95% confidence interval (95%CI) was calculated as the pooled effect measure. Nine RCTs, with a moderate mean methodological quality (5.11 points in PEDro) providing data from 266 participants, were included. All studies included used non-immersive virtual reality (NIVR) devices to carry out the VRBI. Meta-analyses revealed that NIVR was effective in increasing balance (SMD = 0.4; 95%CI 0.09-0.71), as well as running and agility skills (SMD = 0.45; 95%CI 0.03-0.87). However, no statistical differences were found in improving motor skills. Findings reported in this meta-analysis support that VRBI that use NIVR devices can be effective in improving balance in children with DCD.

Repetitive Sprinting and Running Fatigue in Children with Different Levels of Motor Competence

Background: Children with motor delays often experience challenges in health-related fitness, but the impact on running skills remains unclear. Previous research has shown that children with motor coordination problems have lower cardiorespiratory fitness, muscle strength, endurance, and higher body weight compared to peers. Few studies have examined anaerobic capacity, muscular power, endurance, running performance, and fatigue in children with developmental coordination disorder (DCD). This study aims to compare repetitive running and running-induced fatigue in typically developing children and those with varying degrees of motor coordination problems. Methods: Groups were classified using the Movement Assessment Battery for Children, second edition (MABC-2), as probably having DCD (p-DCD, ≤5th percentile, age 9.7 (SD 1.6), n = 141), at risk for DCD (r-DCD, 6th–16th percentile, age 9.9 (SD1.6), n = 160), and typically developing (TD, >16th percentile, age 9.6 (SD 1.6), n = 191). Anaerobic fitness and fatigue were assessed using the Children’s Repetitive and Intermittent Sprinting Performance test (CRISP), while lower and upper body muscular strength, running, and agility were measured with the performance and fitness (PERF-FIT) test battery Power and Agility subscale. Age groups (6–9 and 10–12 years) were analyzed to determine when performance deficits emerged. Results: The p-DCD group was significantly slower, had less power, and fatigued more than the r-DCD and TD children (p < 0.01). This was already clearly the case in the 6–9-year-olds, who slowed down already after the first runs, while the older poorly coordinated children started slower than their peers and showed a more gradual decrease in performance over the runs. Conclusions: Moderate coordination differences between r-DCD and TD children did not significantly impact fatigue, but p-DCD children exhibited greater fatigue due to overestimating their start speed, higher body weight, lower power, and reduced agility, especially in younger age groups. (Too) High starting speed, especially in the younger less coordinated children (p-DCD), is likely to lead to more fatigue.

Efficacy of Leap Motion Device on Fine Motor Function and Handwriting in Children With Developmental Coordination Disorder: A Randomized Control Trial

Efficacy of Leap Motion Device on Fine Motor Function and Handwriting in Children With Developmental Coordination Disorder: A Randomized Control Trial

Effects of Methylphenidate and Atomoxetine Treatment on Improvement of Motor Coordination in Children With Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder

Objective To investigate the effects of methylphenidate and atomoxetine treatment on motor coordination in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).Methods In this single-site, open-label, naturalistic follow-up study, 157 children (7.6±1.4 years; 139 males) with ADHD were recruited between March 2015 and May 2020 from the Department of Psychiatry, Asan Medical Center, and treated for 12 weeks with methylphenidate (n=48) or atomoxetine (n=109). Children completed the Advanced Test of Attention (ATA), and caregivers completed the ADHD Rating Scale (ARS) questionnaire and Developmental Coordination Disorder Questionnaire (DCDQ) at baseline and at 12 weeks. Paired t-tests, a mixed-effects model, and linear regression were used to compare treatment groups and assess factors influencing motor coordination changes.Results Methylphenidate and atomoxetine resulted in significant improvement in DCDQ fine motor/handwriting, general coordination, and total scores over 12 weeks. Fine motor/handwriting had a significant main effect for time (F<sub>1</sub>=16.64, p<0.001, η<sup>2</sup>=0.097); however, the interaction effect between group and time was not significant (F<sub>1</sub>=0.24, p=0.625, η<sup>2</sup>=0.002). Changes in parent-reported ARS inattention scores (β=-0.174, p=0.029) and auditory commission errors of ATA (β=0.191, p=0.022) were significantly associated with changes in fine motor/handwriting. Additionally, changes in parent-reported ARS inattention scores (β=-0.177, p=0.034) and rater-reported ARS inattention scores (β=-0.198, p=0.017) were significant predictors of improvements in general coordination in separate models.Conclusion Methylphenidate and atomoxetine had a positive effect on motor coordination in children with ADHD. Improvement in motor coordination was associated with ADHD symptom improvement.

Motor and visuospatial processing profile in a cross-conditions study: A comparison between developmental coordination disorder and nonverbal learning disability.

Neurodevelopmental conditions often exhibit overlapping symptoms, posing challenges for differential diagnosis. Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) manifests as fundamental motor impairments, often along with co-occurring visuospatial difficulties. Nonverbal Learning Disorder (NLD) features visuospatial core challenges, with a less consistent characterization of its motor profile. Strikingly, to date no study has directly compared DCD and NLD profiles. The present study aimed to analyze whether DCD and NLD share any characteristics by contrasting their motor and visuospatial performances, comparing them with non-diagnosed (ND) peers. A total of 102 participants (8-16 years; DCD N = 29, NLD N = 29, ND N = 44) completed motor and visuospatial tasks. The groups' performance was compared, and the discriminatory power of the measures administered was analyzed. Our findings support the substantial motor and visuospatial impairments in DCD and NLD, respectively. Regarding diagnostic efficacy, motor and visuospatial tasks effectively differentiated DCD or NLD from ND, with specificities related to each condition. Balance, and to a lesser extent, Spatial Processing revealed significant predictive power in distinguishing between DCD and NLD. Our results revealed cross-disorder similarities and highlighted specific hallmarks, corroborating the need of a comprehensive motor and visuospatial assessment for distinguishing between DCD and NLD.

Prevalence and Risk Factors of Developmental Delay among High-risk Preterm NICU Graduates – A Cross-Sectional Study

Objectives: Preterm and low birth weight neonates are vulnerable to developing neurodevelopmental handicaps more frequently compared to their term counterparts. Neurodevelopmental delay is multifactorial and is likely a consequence of an immature brain, perinatal risk factors, and environmental exposures. The study objective was to determine the prevalence of developmental delay in high-risk preterm infants and also to determine the risk factors for delay in development. Material and Methods: The study was an analytical cross-sectional study conducted in the Department of Pediatrics of a tertiary care medical college hospital from October 2021 to October 2022. Infants born as high-risk preterm neonates who required neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) stay in the early neonatal period were included in the study at the corrected age of 1 year after informed parental consent. Infants whose parents did not consent to the study were excluded from the study. Details of maternal, neonatal, and perinatal risk factors were noted in a pro forma. All infants included in the study were part of the follow-up program in the high risk newborn follow-up clinic and were assessed for growth and development periodically. A detailed neurological examination was done. During the follow-up of high-risk neonates, clinical assessment tools like Amiel-Tison angles were used. Details regarding the passive tone and active tone were documented in the follow-up card and reviewed. Early intervention was planned if tone abnormalities were identified. Developmental screening was done using the Trivandrum developmental screening test. Only trivandrum developmental screening test (TDSC) was used in screening, and confirmatory tests such as Bayley and developmental assessment scale for Indian infants (DASII) were not used in the study center. Although TDSC is not a confirmatory test, in a resource-limited setting, it may help to identify infants with delays in development early and refer them to a higher center. The prevalence of developmental delay was expressed in proportion with a 95% confidence interval (CI). Risk factors were determined by bivariate, followed by multivariate logistic regression analysis. P < 0.05 was considered significant. Results: The present study included infants who were high-risk preterm NICU graduates, of whom 57.2% were male. 22.7% of neonates had birth weight <1750 g. The prevalence (95% CI) of developmental delay was 18 % (12.2–27.6%). There were 18% neonates with gross motor delay, 13% with delay in fine motor development, 18% with delayed language development, and 14% with delay in social and adaptive milestones. By multivariate analysis, it was found that among the neonatal risk factors, apnea and birth weight <1.75 kg were independent risk factors for developmental delay. Conclusion: High-risk preterm NICU graduates are at risk of neurodevelopmental delay, and we observed an 18% prevalence of delay. Periodic follow-up and early intervention of babies with risk factors such as apnea and birth weight <1.75 kg is necessary.

Estimating health state utilities for aromatic L-amino acid decarboxylase deficiency (AADCd) in the United States

BackgroundAADCd is a rare neurometabolic disorder presenting in infancy. Children with AADCd have motor dysfunction and development delays that result in the need for lifelong care; quality of life is greatly impacted. Current characterizations of health-related quality of life and associated health state utilities (HSUs) may be underestimated in AADCd. Accurate characterization of AADCd burden is important when evaluating the benefits of treatment, especially the improvements observed with the recently approved disease-modifying therapy eladocagene exuparvovec. Time-trade-off (TTO) vignette methods may be used to elicit HSUs in AADCd for assessing the value of new treatments. This study aimed to first update previously published health state vignettes, then estimate AADCd HSUs in the United States (US).MethodsExisting vignettes for five AADCd health states were updated based on the review of published literature and clinician/caregiver input. Health states included: “bedridden/no motor function,” “head control,” “sitting unassisted,” “standing with support,” “walking with assistance.” Online composite TTO interviews were conducted 1:1 with adults from the US general public. Participants ranked health states in order of preference using a visual analog scale, then were presented with health state vignettes to elicit utilities using TTO. Mean TTO scores were calculated for each health state, and regression models were used to estimate disutility associated with use of feeding tube.ResultsFollowing revision of the vignettes, 120 participants completed the TTO task (mean age: 47 years; 50% female; 70% White); characteristics were not significantly different from US population norms in terms of age, sex, race or ethnicity. Six participants who appeared to misunderstand the exercise were excluded. Mean (SD) HSUs were: -0.258 (0.534) for bedridden state, -0.155 (0.569) for head control, 0.452 (0.523) for sitting unassisted, 0.775 (0.242) for standing with support, and 0.796 (0.235) for walking with assistance. The need for a feeding tube was associated with a disutility of 0.07.ConclusionsThis study implemented TTO methods to estimate utilities for five health states which reflect the burden and impact of AADCd. The range in values from the most to least severe health state suggests that there is potential for effective treatments to substantially improve quality of life in these patients.

Neurodevelopmental outcomes after infant heart surgery for congenital heart disease: a hospital-based multicentre prospective cohort study from India

BackgroundNeurodevelopmental disability is a common long-term concern following surgery for congenital heart disease (CHD). Little information is available from low-resource environments where the majority of children with CHD are born....

Vestibular function in children with neurodevelopmental disorders: A neglected sense?

The study aimed to explore the vestibular function in children with neurodevelopmental disorders (NDDs). Twenty-eight participants with a NDD (6 girls, 22 boys; 6-13years; 9;3±2;4 years) were enrolled in this pilot study. Sixteen participants had a single NDD (Autism Spectrum Disorder: n=7, Developmental Coordination Disorder: n=3; Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: n=6), the remaining 12 had comorbid NDDs. The integrity of the peripheral vestibular system was evaluated using ocular and cervical Vestibular Evoked Myogenic Potentials (o/cVEMP), and a video Head Impulse Test (vHIT); motor competence was assessed with the Movement Assessment Battery for Children, and the KörperkoordinationsTest für Kinder. Results were compared to an age and sex-matched control group (n=28; 9;7±1;9 years). The NDD group exhibited significantly higher interpeak amplitudes on both VEMP tests compared to the control group (p<0.001). No significant differences were found between the groups on vHIT measurements (p>0.05). Among the children with NDDs, 11 (39%) showed atypical vestibular responses, including one child with vHIT correction saccades and three children with reduced or absent otolith responses (n=3). Additionally, eight children showed abnormally elevated otolith amplitudes (cVEMP > 4.00µV; oVEMP > 55.00µV). Clinicians are encouraged to recognize the overlap and consider the possibility of vestibular alterations in individuals with NDD. Incorporating vestibular assessments into routine clinical evaluations, particularly in children with NDD who exhibit delayed motor development, balance issues, hearing loss, or vestibular-related symptoms, is strongly recommended.

Motor skills in children with ADHD: overlap with developmental coordination disorder

Individuals with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) often have overlooked motor difficulties which can be at least partially attributed to co-occurring conditions such as Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD). Understanding the influence of DCD and motor difficulties is important to detect in children for early support. Accordingly, the present study examined the prevalence of DCD diagnoses, cases of probable DCD, and related impairments among German-speaking parents of children with ADHD. A total of N = 168 parents completed an online study about their child’s potential for co-occurring DCD via the Developmental Coordination Disorder Questionnaire (DCD-Q). Even after children with DCD diagnoses were removed from the sample (n = 46), a majority still remained below threshold for probable DCD (55.9%) according to parent-reports. Via exploratory analyses, we also found that a majority of parents in the sample had not heard of DCD before (64.9%) and that many parents did not deem DCD as relevant to their children, even when their DCD-Q scores were in the range of probable DCD. The results align with a high prevalence of DCD in children with ADHD despite a simultaneous lack of awareness of DCD. Furthermore, findings in our sample align with frequently estimated global co-occurrence rates of 50% between ADHD and DCD. Broadly, the results support that motor difficulties should be considered in ADHD assessment and intervention.

Kinetics and Kinematics of Shape Tracing in Children with Probable Developmental Coordination Disorder (pDCD).

Children with developmental coordination disorder (DCD) exhibit visual-motor deficits affecting handwriting. Shape tracing, a key prerequisite for handwriting, supports motor and cognitive development but remains underexplored in research, particularly in objectively studying its role in children with DCD. To compare the kinetics (pressure applied to the writing surface) and kinematics (spatial and temporal aspects) of shape tracing in children with pDCD to those of typically developing (TD) peers utilizing a digitized tablet. A total of 27 children with pDCD aged 7 to 12 years and 27 TD children matched by age and gender traced five unique shapes resembling print letters onto a digitized tablet. Participants' performance measurements included precision, time, smoothness, velocity, and pressure. The findings revealed lower precision, longer duration, more smoothness but less consistency, lower velocity, and less pressure application in the pDCD group. This research underlies the mechanisms of shape-tracing difficulties in children with DCD. Insights into early shape-tracing processes beyond product outcomes are essential for therapeutic and educational interventions, with digitized tablets offering a novel tool for assessing graphomotor skills in children with DCD.

Motor dysfunction in preschool children exposed to zika virus during pregnancy and normocephalic at birth: Developmental Coordination Disorder and Minimal Neurological Dysfunction.

The occurrence of motor dysfunctions was assessed at the age of 5 to 7years in 61 normocephalic infants with prenatal Zika virus exposure. Traditional neurological examination, Touwen neurological examination, Movement Assessment Battery for Children-Second Edition (MABC-2) and the Developmental Coordination Disorder Questionnaire (DCDQ) were used to identify Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) and Minimal Neurological Dysfunction (MND). A high frequency of motor dysfunctions was found, 47 (81.0%) of MND and 15 (24.5%) of probable DCD. It is also possible to suggest some association between both conditions.

A protocol to study the effect of targeted parental education intervention to identify early childhood development disorder – multisite interventional study

BackgroundIn India, approximately 3.5 million children are affected by Developmental Delay (DD), often stemming from preterm births. These delays contribute to neurological and motor development delays, placing a significant financial burden on families. Maternal unemployment rates are also elevated in such cases. Delayed Developmental Milestones identification, often due to a lack of parental awareness, further compounds these challenges. This study introduces a multiphasic approach aimed at educating antenatal women on monitoring neurological maturation, with the overarching objective of assessing the effectiveness of a targeted multi-method parental education intervention in improving parents’ knowledge and early detection of developmental disorders in early childhood.MethodsAntenatal women will be assigned to intervention or control groups. The intervention group will undergo specialized training in a multiphasic study, while the control group will receive routine care. A meticulously developed intervention module for early detection of neurodevelopmental disorders will empower mothers to monitor their newborns for potential deficits. Outcomes will be assessed through questionnaires, analyzing knowledge improvement and early identification of DD using statistical methods such as chi-square tests. The study involves three phases: preparatory, implementation, and evaluation, aiming to empower mothers to detect developmental concerns early and improve maternal awareness of child development. The study was approved by the SRM Institutional Ethical Committee with the reference number 8688/IEC/2023.DiscussionThis study will identify DD and improve parental awareness by providing tools for early detection thereby empowers parents to identify developmental concerns early. The study supports policy goals to reduce the burden of DD, enhance early intervention, and improve long-term outcomes for children. It is anticipated that this intervention will complement existing health policies, contributing to better child health and developmental outcomes in India.Trial registrationTrail is registered under Clinical Trails Registry - India (CTRI/2024/04/065008) registered on 01 April 2024.

Characteristics of sensory processing changes in children with developmental coordination disorder: A systematic review.

Sensory processing difficulties are common in neurodevelopment conditions, such as developmental coordination disorder (DCD), and can significantly impact daily living activities. To systematically review the literature to (1) synthesize the characteristics (sections and patterns) of sensory processing alterations in children with developmental coordination disorder (DCD), (2) compare these characteristics with those of children with typical development or associated comorbidities, and (3) identify which characteristics may be present from early childhood. This systematic review followed the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) and was submitted and registered in PROSPERO. The literature search was conducted in the MEDLINE/PubMed, Web of Science, Scopul, SciELO, LILACS, ERIC, and EMBASE databases. Original studies that evaluated the sensory processing of children with DCD aged 3-12 years using standardized instruments were included. A total of 2609 studies were retrieved from databases. Of these, five studies that identified sensory processing alterations in children with DCD were included. The most affected sensory characteristics were touch and balance and motion sections, and the avoider pattern, which may present behaviors observed in early childhood. The methodological quality of studies ranged from moderate to high, whereas effect sizes ranged from small to moderate. This systematic review identified that children with DCD or probable DCD presented sensory processing alterations. Further studies with high methodological quality are needed to recommend the sensory processing characteristics impacting the early identification of DCD.

Do not Forget to Measure the Head: Hydrocephalus Can Phenotypically Mimic Developmental Coordination Disorder.

Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) is a neurodevelopmental condition presenting with poor motor skill development and impaired coordination at a young age. To diagnose DCD, neurologic conditions explanatory for the phenotype, including structural brain abnormalities like hydrocephalus, must be first ruled out. However, these neurologic conditions may phenotypically mimic DCD, which can hamper their distinction. In this article, we report a patient in whom the initial diagnosis of DCD was withdrawn after the identification of acquired hydrocephalus. An important cue in this case was secondary macrocephaly (from +0.00 to +2.25 standard deviations over approximately 6 years' time). This case illustrates that, in children whose phenotypes seemingly fulfill the DCD criteria, it is important to rule out an underlying, treatable etiology before making the diagnosis of DCD. Since few structural brain abnormalities mimicking DCD may present with macrocephaly, including hydrocephalus, performing longitudinal head circumference measurements can be useful to timely identify these neurologic conditions.

What Influences the Likelihood of Gross Motor Developmental Delay Among Preschoolers in the Rural United States?

ABSTRACT Today’s children are experiencing a secular decline in gross motor skill development, resulting in developmental delays (DD). Understanding which development facets affect gross motor DD presentation supports prevention strategies. This study explored the influence of executive function, self-concept, and others associated with gross motor DD in preschool-aged children with and without disabilities. Participants (N = 660; Girls = 310; Boys = 370; M age = 64.07, SD = 9.12 months) included children enrolled in general (n = 627) or self-contained (n = 33) classrooms. Participants were categorized as severe DD (%ile = 0–9), DD (10th–27th %ile), or no DD (28th + %ile) based on Test of Gross Motor Development-3, and a logistical regression model was fitted to examine the contributions of variables on gross motor DD. A higher score in perceived movement competence significantly lowered the odds of severe DD (t(654) = -3.24, p < 0.001, Wald = -6.49). A higher score in social skills significantly lowered the odds of severe DD (t(654) = -2.04, p = 0.04, Wald = -4.07). A higher score in problem behavior had a non-significant influence on severe DD (t(654) = -0.05, p = 0.96, Wald = -0.09). A higher score in attention significantly lowered severe DD (t(654) = -3.06, p = 0.002, Wald = -6.13). Those in a self-contained classroom had higher odds of severe DD (t(654) = 4.70, p < 0.0001, Wald = 9.39). Prevention intervention programs should consider the multiple facets of development when supporting children’s trajectories for health.

Transfer of motor and strategy learning in children with Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD): A scoping review.

Developmental coordination disorder (DCD) is a developmental disorder that affects the learning and execution of motor skills. Little is known about their ability to transfer their learning, i.e. to adapt prior knowledge to new tasks (Hattie & Donoghue, 2016). This is an important issue in these children, both to better understand how they can adapt initial learning to new tasks, and to develop interventions that will enable them to transfer their knowledge into their daily lives. The aim of this scoping review is to assess the body and nature of the existing literature on transfer of learning in children with DCD. After a search in 4 databases, 58 publications meeting the inclusion criteria were included. Among the studies, 18 aimed at measuring transfer, other can be interpreted as measuring transfer of learning even if transfer is not explicitly mentioned by the authors. The results show that children with DCD seem to have difficulty transferring their motor learning when the transfer tasks are far from the trained tasks but seem able to transfer their learning when the transfer tasks remain close, however they can transfer cognitive strategies to more distant transfer tasks. Future research is needed to systematically assess different aspects of transfer, with the aim of proposing effective interventions for children with DCD.

Which items of the movement assessment battery for children are most sensitive for identifying children with probable developmental coordination disorder? Results from a large-scale study.

Despite the widespread use of the Movement Assessment Battery for Children, 2nd edition (MABC-2), little is known about the sensitivity or specificity of the individual items to detect probable Developmental Coordination Disorder (p-DCD). This study examined which specific MABC-2 items were most sensitive to identify children with p-DCD and which items would predict p-DCD. Based on a large dataset including European and African children aged 3-16 years (n = 4916, typically developing (TD, 49.6 % boys); n = 822 p-DCD (53.1 % boys), Hedges' g was calculated to establish the standardized mean difference (SMD) between p-DCD/TD. SMDs were considered substantial when absolute values at or above 1.4. Sensitivity and specificity of the raw MABC-2 item scores predicting p-DCD/TD per age band (AB) were established with logistic regression analysis. AB1: Children with p-DCD performed substantially poorer on threading beads (SMD: -1.61) and jumping on mats (SMD: 1.61). By combining all items and the country of origin, the sensitivity was 61.7 % and specificity 98.6 %. AB2: Walking heel-to-toe forwards (SMD: 1.65) was substantially poorer in p-DCD. By combining all items and the country of origin, the sensitivity was 79.0 % and specificity 97.6 %. AB3: Catching a ball with the preferred (SMD: 1.8) or non-preferred (SMD: 1.61) hand, and for walking heel-to-toe backwards (SMD: 1.78) were substantially poorer in p-DCD. All items combined resulted in a sensitivity of 94.4 % and specificity of 99.6 %. Not all MABC-2 items are equally sensitive to distinguish between performances of p-DCD and TD. Despite the good specificity, the sensitivity was only moderate in AB1-2, the age at which children learn culturally influenced motor skills.

Examining the Effectiveness of Ayres Sensory Integration® Intervention for Children With Developmental Coordination Disorder in Improving Motor Coordination and Daily Activity Function: A Randomized Controlled Trial

Examining the Effectiveness of Ayres Sensory Integration® Intervention for Children With Developmental Coordination Disorder in Improving Motor Coordination and Daily Activity Function: A Randomized Controlled Trial