Developmental Coordination Disorder Questionnaire Research Articles

Developmental coordination disorder questionnaire – translation and adaptation into Danish

Background Developmental Coordination Disorder is a commonly occurring, but poorly recognised developmental condition characterised by difficulties with motor functions. Danish tests of children’s motor functioning, which are currently available, are outdated and only applicable up to the age of seven years old. New tools are needed to enable easy and efficient screening of motor difficulties experienced by children living in Denmark. Aims/Objectives We translated and adapted the Developmental Coordination Disorder Questionnaire (DCDQ’07) into Danish and aimed to evaluate its utility. Materials and Methods A team of translators prepared the Danish version of the DCDQ’07 – DCDQ-DK. In total, 36 parents completed the questionnaire. The children completed fine and gross motor tests. Concurrent validity was tested using Pearson correlation on the DCDQ-DK and motor performance scores. Internal consistency was tested using Cronbach’s alpha. Results The results show good concurrent validity (r = .311) and internal consistency (α = .80). Conclusions DCDQ-DK is well suited for use with Danish-speaking parents. Significance The tool will aid early assessment of motor difficulties in children of Danish-speaking parents. DCDQ-DK can be used by occupational therapists, educational and health professionals as well as researchers in national and international contexts.

LEGO®-Based Therapy in School Settings for Social Behavior Stimulation in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder: Comparing Peer-Mediated and Expert Intervention

Background: LEGO®-based therapy is a social development protocol that uses LEGO® activities to support the development of a wide range of interaction skills, enhancing prosocial behaviors and mitigating the challenges associated with mental health difficulties and behavioral issues commonly observed in children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Objectives: This study aimed to explore the effects of LEGO®-based therapy on the social behavior and mental health of children with ASD, comparing stimulation mediated by expert and stimulation mediated by non-autistic peers. This study was approved by the Ethical Committee at Mackenzie Presbyterian University, ensuring adherence to ethical standards throughout the research process. Methods: This study involved 18 children with ASD, levels 1 or 2, with an intelligence quotient (IQ) above 70, and three typically developing peers, intelligence quotient (IQ) above 80, aged between 5 and 8 years old, of both sexes. Participants were randomized into three groups for stimulation (stimulation mediated by expert, by a non-autistic peer and control group). The measures were the Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence, the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (parent and teacher versions), the Inventory of Difficulties in Executive Functions, Regulation, and Aversion to Delay—Child Version, the Developmental Coordination Disorder Questionnaire, the Autism Behavior Checklist, and the Autistic Behavior Inventory. Results: After 14 sessions of 45 min in school settings, the participants of both groups (mediated by experts and non-autistic children) showed significant gains on social behavior. A statistically significant difference was observed between baseline sessions and probes (χ2 (5) = 25.905, p < 0.001). These gains were maintained in both follow-up points, 30 and 90 days after the completion of the stimulation sessions. Additionally, maladaptive behavior showed a significant decline when compared pre- and post-intervention. These improvements were sustained during follow-up assessments at 30 and 90 days. Conclusions: The results suggest that a structured intervention combined with peer-mediated stimulation may be an effective method for promoting adaptive and prosocial behaviors in children with ASD.

Associations between physical activity and development in preschool-aged children born

ObjectiveTo investigate the effect of physical activity (PA) on development (motor, cognitive, social-emotional) in children 4–5 years old born <30 weeks’ gestation, and to describe subgroups of children at risk...

Investigating the link between temperamental and motor development: a longitudinal study of infants aged 6–42 months

BackgroundSince the 1920s, motor development has been a strong research theme, focusing on infants' acquisition of motor skills, such as turning over and crawling. In the 1980s, a dynamic systems approach began emphasizing children's own motivation, which helped explain individual differences in the emergence of motor skills. However, few studies have examined factors contributing to individual differences in early motor development. In response, we investigated directional associations between temperament and motor development in children aged 6 months to 3 years.MethodThe Japan Environment and Children’s Study (JECS-A) recruited mothers between January 2011 and March 2014. 2,639 mothers were sent a questionnaire at 6 months, and responses were received from 1,657 of them, with full data for children aged 6 months, 2 years, and 3 years, including from three mothers of twins, were analyzed through structural equation modeling. Question items regarding fine and gross motor activities at each age were selected by pediatric neurologists specializing in developmental disorders. The Japanese version of the Little Developmental Coordination Disorder Questionnaire was administered at 42 months. Temperament was assessed through the parent-reported Behavior Questionnaire (short version) for infants, toddlers, and children. In all three measures, Surgency and Negative Affectivity were extracted, and Effortful Control, a major form of self-regulation, was found from toddlerhood onward, as in previous studies.ResultsA path diagram reveals that at 6 months, Surgency and Orienting/Regulation interacted positively with the motor function (respectively, r = .57; r = 40, ps < .001). Up to about 3 years, Effortful Control plays a role in facilitating the motor function, resulting in positive effects on Control During Movement (CDM), General Coordination (GC), and Fine Motor Movement (FMM) (β = 14; β = 30; β = 37, ps < .001). Surgency had a positive effect on CDM and GC (β = 18; β = 06, ps < .001), whereas Negative Affect had a negative influence on FMM and GC (β = -.08; β = -.08, ps < .001).ConclusionWhile Surgency may be a key reactive factor in early motor development, Effortful Control and Movement develop in an interactive manner.Trial registrationUMIN000030786.Scientific Title: The Japan Environment and Children’s Study.Date of disclosure of the study: 2018/01/15.Only questionnaires were administered in the study.

Pilot Study on Reading and Writing Characteristics in Children with Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder.

This study surveys the factors regarding reading and writing difficulties in children with attentiondeficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and uses these results to provide support. We conducted surveys on 16 elementary school children from 3rd to 6th grades who were diagnosed with ADHD by a physician based on the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5). We conducted a Hiragana reading test, a Kanji reading and writing test, and a visual perception test on the subject children. We requested that the parents of the children complete a reading and writing symptom checklist, the Developmental Coordination Disorder Questionnaire (DCDQ), the Strength and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ), the ADHD-Rating Scale (ADHD-RS), and the Autism-Spectrum Quotient (AQ). We conducted a multiple regression analysis using the Kanji reading and writing test as the dependent variable. Results revealed that the positional task score in the visual perception test was a factor that influences Kanji writing. Meanwhile, gender, reading-related items on the reading and writing symptom checklist, and performance such as misreading of hiragana were factors that influenced Kanji reading. Based on the results, we suggested that when teaching Kanji writing, children's visual cognition ability should be assessed, and ways to incorporate learning methods that supplement visual perception, such as color masses and electronic learning materials, should be devised. When teaching reading, we suggest using teaching materials that present not only text but also audio as needed, and support the awareness of parents.

Investigation of the relationship between gross motor maturation from 1 to 18 months and preschool gross motor performance in at-risk infants.

At-risk infants are predisposed to major and minor neurodevelopmental disorders due to various biological and environmental factors. This study aimed to investigate the relationship between gross motor maturation from 1 to 18 months and gross motor performance in the preschool period, as well as the risk of developmental coordination disorder (DCD) in at-risk infants, referred to the Family Counselling Center of the Turkish Spastic Children's Foundation (FCCTSCF) between 2014 and 2016. Fifty-seven children who had their gross motor maturation assessed between 1 and 18 months at the FCCTSCF were re-evaluated in the preschool period. The Alberta Infant Motor Scale (AIMS) was used to evaluate gross motor maturation between 1 and 18 months. In contrast, the Gross Motor Function Measure-88 and the Developmental Coordination Disorder Questionnaire were used to assess gross motor performance in the preschool period. Of the at-risk infants included in the study, 45.6% were evaluated as having typical development, 21% were identified as having cerebral palsy (CP), and 33.3% were determined to be at risk for DCD. Children with CP and those at risk for DCD were found to have lower percentile ranks on the past AIMS test compared to the healthy group (p = 0.001). A significant positive correlation was found between the Alberta Infant Motor Scale and the Gross Motor Function Measure-88 (p = 0.014). In the clinical follow-up of at-risk infants, those who scored low on AIMS should be monitored for future risk of DCD and minor disorders, even if major neurological issues such as cerebral palsy are not detected.

Association between Motor Skills, Occupational Performance, and Mental Health in Japanese Children with Neurodevelopmental Disorders: A Cross-Sectional Correlational Study.

Motor skills have been linked to executive functions (EFs) in children with developmental coordination disorder (DCD). However, the traits of other neurodevelopmental disorders (NDDs), such as attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and autism spectrum disorder, remain overlooked. Therefore, this study explored the association between motor skills, occupational performance, and mental health in older kindergarten children with DCD and other NDDs. Overall, 95 participants aged 5-6 years were included in this study and divided into four groups: DCD traits (DCD-t), DCD-t + NDD traits (DCD-t + NDD-t), NDD-t-only, and typically developing children. Motor skills, EFs, and mental health were assessed using the DCD Questionnaire (DCDQ-J) and Movement Assessment Battery for Children-Second Edition, School Assessment of Motor and Process Skills (S-AMPS), and the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ), respectively. The DCD-t + NDD-t group exhibited a strong correlation between the S-AMPS motor skill score and the DCDQ-J fine motor skill score (r = 0.88, p < 0.001) and between the total DCDQ-J score and the SDQ Total Difficulties Score (r = -0.94, p < 0.001). The findings indicate that children with DCD-t and NDD-t are more likely to experience EF and mental health problems than those with DCD-t only.

Prevalence and associated factors of developmental coordination disorder in primary school children.

Developmental coordination disorder (DCD) is one of the most frequently observed movement disorders in childhood, yet data on its prevalence are still unclear. This two-stage epidemiological study aims to determine the prevalence of DCD in children between 6 and 10 years of age according to the diagnostic criteria of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-5 (DSM-5). In the first stage, the Developmental Coordination Disorder Questionnaire (DCDQ'07) were given to primary school students. In the second stage, clinicians conducted psychiatric interviews with children who had an indication of DCD or were suspected of having DCD according to the DCDQ'07 and their parents. The interviews utilized the DSM-5 diagnostic criteria for DCD and applied the Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia for School-Age Children-Present and Lifetime Version-Turkish Adaptation (K-SADS-PL) and Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC-R) to identify co-occurring disorders. In the first stage, 2,306 children were evaluated, and 205 were invited for a clinical interview. Of the 198 children interviewed, 49 met the diagnostic criteria for DCD. The prevalence of DCD in Türkiye was found to be 2.1%. High parental education level, a previous psychiatric admission of the child, mother's postpartum depressive symptoms, co-occurring disorders, and co-occurring attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) were significantly more common among children with DCD. Potentially associated factors were evaluated by logistic regression analysis. The mother's education level, the presence of postpartum depressive symptoms, and co-occurring disorders in the child were found to be associated factors.

Validating motor delays across the developmental coordination disorder-questionnaire and the Vineland adaptive behavior scales (VABS) in children with autism spectrum disorderASD: A SPARK dataset analysis.

Motor delays in children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) are being increasingly recognized using a brief screening tool, called the Developmental Coordination Disorder-Questionnaire (DCD-Q). Further validation of these motor delays using a more robust normed, developmental measure is clearly warranted. In this analysis, a nationally representative sample from the SPARK study was used wherein parents completed the DCD-Q and a more widely used developmental/adaptive functioning measure, called the Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales (VABS); which comprises of various developmental domains including the motor domain (N = 2,644 completed the DCD-Q and VABS). Eighty two percent children with ASD had a motor delay based on their DCD-Q scores whereas 77% children with ASD had a motor delay based on their VABS motor domain scores. Approximately 70% children with ASD had concurrent motor delay on the DCD-Q and the VABS (i.e., positive predictive value of DCD-Q). Furthermore, there was 81.2% accuracy in reporting a risk/no risk of motor delay across both measures. Overall, these statistics align with the recent reports on proportions of children with ASD having motor delays. Parents of ~70% children with ASD are reporting motor delays that are corroborated across two different motor measures. This not only validates the motor delays reported based on the DCD-Q but also indicates the need for concurrent motor screening using both DCD-Q and VABS for better detection of motor delays in children with ASD. Only 10%-32% of the current SPARK sample received any physical or recreational therapies. This mismatch between presence of motor delays and the lack of access to motor services highlights the need for more motor intervention referrals for children with ASD.

Possible associations between prenatal exposure to environmental pollutants and neurodevelopmental outcome in children

This study aimed to evaluate associations between prenatal and childhood exposure to phthalates and prenatal exposure to polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and the development of 4-year-old children. Urinary metabolites of five phthalates were measured in women upon delivery, as well as serum concentrations of four PCB congeners. Postnatal phthalate metabolites were measured from children's urine obtained at the time of developmental assessment. The primary outcome was cognitive function as evaluated by the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI-III) administered at 4 years. Secondary outcomes were motor function and response to sensory stimuli as evaluated by the Developmental Coordination Disorder Questionnaire (DCDQ) and Short Sensory Profile (SSP) that the mothers filled out, respectively. The study included 57 mother-child pairs. Higher maternal phthalate metabolite concentrations were inversely associated with WPPSI-III scores among boys and not among girls. After using linear regression models and controlling for confounding variables, we found that higher levels of monobenzyl phthalate (MBzP) were the ones associated with lower WPPSI-III scores (p=0.004, 95 %CI [-14.18; −3.16]), lower DCDQ scores (p=0.007, 95 %CI [-6.08; −1.17] and lower SSP scores (p=0.004, 95 %CI [-7.47; −1.79]). No association was found between child urinary phthalate metabolite concentrations or maternal PCB blood concentrations and developmental function. These findings indicate that higher prenatal phthalate metabolite levels may be associated with deficits in neurologic development of young boys.

The Effect of Neurodevelopmental Disorders Characteristics on Aspects of Social Functioning

Aim The purpose of this study was to estimate the extent to which neurodevelopmental disorders (NDD's) symptoms (motor, sensory, attention and executive function) are associated with aspects of social function among school aged children. Methods This cross-sectional study included 39 children aged 6–9 years old (71.8% boys) who were referred to child development centers due to motor, sensory, and/or cognitive difficulties. The parents completed NDD's symptoms questionnaires: Developmental Coordination Disorder Questionnaire; Child Sensory Profile-2; Attention Deficit Hyperactive Disorder (ADHD) Rating Scale and the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function. They also completed the Social Skills Improvement System and a social participation measure. Results Analysis demonstrated low to moderate correlations between social functioning aspects and the majority of NDD's symptoms. Executive functioning was the only predictor of social skills and social participation and accounted for most of the variability of behavioral problems, alongside a small contribution of ADHD symptoms. Conclusion The findings contribute to the accumulating body of knowledge regarding social abilities of children with NDD's and suggest new information as to the effect of executive functions in this domain. Along with conducting a routine evaluation of social skills among children suspected to have NDD's, executive functions should also be comprehensively evaluated.

Examining the feasibility of immersive virtual reality to measure upper limb motor performance in typically developing children and adolescents

Over the last five years, virtual reality (VR) has become more popular in pediatric physiotherapy. In this study, we assessed the feasibility and acceptability of measuring upper-limb movements in typically-developing children and adolescents using an immersive virtual reality (iVR) headset. Thirty-six typically-developing children (age: 12 ± 2.1 y) were recruited and required to draw circles in a custom-built virtual environment using a Meta-Quest-2 headset. Outcomes were the System Usability Scale (SUS), Developmental Coordination Disorder-Questionnaire (DCD-Q), and three metrics of circle drawing performance (movement time, mean velocity and circle roundness). The mean score for the SUS was 74 ± 11, indicating good levels of acceptability and usability when the participants used the headset. No strong relationships were observed between the circle drawing metrics and DCD-Q scores (rho = < 0.3, p = > 0.05), but circle roundness ratios were positively and significantly correlated with SUS scores (rho = 0.5, p = 0.003). No adverse effects associated with iVR use were reported for any participants. This study showed that iVR is a viable method to measure upper-limb motor performance in children and adolescents, highlighting the potential value of this tool in pediatric physiotherapy practice.

A Cross-Cultural Adaptation of the Czech Version of the Developmental Coordination Disorder Questionnaire: The Content Validity Part.

The Developmental Coordination Disorder Questionnaire (DCDQ) is a widely used parent questionnaire for screening motor coordination disorders in children aged 5-15 years. Despite increasing motor difficulties in children, a validated version is lacking in Central Europe. In addition, previous studies pointed out that several DCDQ items were shown to be problematic in different cultural environments. We found that the majority of these studies did not assess the item's content validity approach for keeping the semantic form and linguistic intelligibility of the original items. Therefore, this study aimed to translate the DCDQ, determine the content validity of items, and adapt the DCDQ for Czech children aged 6-10 years, where the identification of motor difficulties is crucial. Back-translation was employed, and face validity was consulted with linguistic experts and occupational therapists. A sample of 25 bilingual parents and practitioners evaluated the translated version, with content validity assessed using the Content Validity Ratio coefficient (CVR). Initial CVR scores ranged from 0.6 to 1.0. Lower scores were found for items 14 and 15, which were shown to be problematic in previous studies. The reason for the lower content validity in these items was due to double negation. Following linguistic modifications, the CVR values improved (range: 0.87-1.0), indicating content and semantic stability. Our findings underscore the importance of considering content validity and language specificity, including issues like double negation, during cross-cultural questionnaire validation to mitigate potential psychometric concerns in the future. The adapted Czech version exhibits significant content validity, thereby warranting further validation of its psychometric properties.

The relationship between executive function and the association of motor coordination difficulties and social communication deficits in autistic children.

Motor coordination difficulties could contribute to social communication deficits in autistic children. However, the exploration of the mechanism implicated in these claims has been limited by the lack of potential confounders such as executive function (EF). We investigated the role that EF plays in the relationship between motor coordination and social communication in a school-aged autistic population via a structural model in a statistically robust manner. The results of questionnaires, including the Developmental Coordination Disorder questionnaire, the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function, and the Social Responsiveness Scale, were collected to measure motor coordination, social communication deficits, and EF. A total of 182 autistic children (7.61±1.31 years, 87.9% boys) were included in the final analysis. In the model with EF as a mediator, the total effect (β=-0.599, P<0.001) and the direct effect (β=-0.331, P =0.003) of motor coordination function on social communication were both significant among autistic children without intellectual disability (ID), as were indirect effects through EF (β=-0.268, P<0.001). EF partially mediates the motor coordination and social communication correlation among autistic children. We suggest that motor coordination should be included in the routine evaluation of autistic surveillance and rehabilitation procedures.

The role of the psychological attributes of parents and children, and fracture history in upper extremity fractures in school-age and adolescents: A case-control study.

This study aims to investigate the influence of parents and children's psychological attributes and previous fracture history on upper extremity fractures in school-aged and adolescent children. Between January 2022 and January 2023, a total of 194 participants consisting of 97 cases with upper extremity fractures (23 males, 74 females; median age: 10 years; range, 6 to 16 years) and 97 age-matched controls suffering from growing pains (47 males, 50 females; median age: 10 years; range, 6 to 16 years) were included in this case-control study. Both cases and controls were of school-age or over. The parents of the children were interviewed face-to-face using psychological scales including the Adult Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Self-Report Scale (ASRS), the Autism-Spectrum Quotient (AQ), the Short Form of the Conners' Parent Rating Scale-Revised (CPRS-R:S), and the Developmental Coordination Disorder Questionnaire 2007 (DCDQ'07). The results derived from these scales and the demographics of the participants were evaluated in terms of their association with the risk of upper extremity fractures. A household income below the official minimum monthly wage (MMW) and a previous fracture history showed a higher risk for upper extremity fractures (odds ratio [OR]=2.38, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.07-5.26 and OR=24.93, 95% CI: 3.27-189.98, respectively). In the univariate analyses, elevated scores on the hyperactivity subscale of CPRS-R:S (CPRS-R:SHS) were associated with a higher fracture risk (OR=1.14, 95% CI: 1.05-1.24). Furthermore, both a household income below MMW, a previous fracture history, and higher CPRS-R:S-HS scores were found as independent risk factors for upper extremity fractures in the multivariate regression analysis (OR=2.78, 95% CI: 1.13-6.86, OR=21.79, 95% CI: 2.73-174.03), and OR=1.11, 95% CI: 1.02-1.22, respectively). Our study results highlight the importance of known risk factors for upper extremity fractures such as lower monthly wage and the presence of previous fractures. The psychological states of parents and children should be evaluated together.

The Effect of 8 Weeks of Exergame Training on Motor Proficiency of Children and Adolescents With Typical Development and Those With Developmental Coordination Disorder

Background and Aims Considering the motor and cognitive problems that arise following developmental coordination disorder (DCD), discovering new methods to deal with and reduce the adverse effects of this disorder is of particular importance. These people must promptly and effectively benefit from therapeutic and preventive interventions to improve their motor proficiency. This study aimed to investigate the effect of 8 weeks of exergame training on the motor proficiency of children and adolescents with typical development and those with developmental coordination disorders. Methods This quasi-experimental research employed a pretest-posttest and between-group approach. To conduct this research, 40 female students with an average age of 11.29-14.24 years were grouped into 4: healthy (10-12 years), healthy (13-15 years), DCD (10-12 years), and DCD (13-15 years). Students with suspected developmental coordination disorder were identified by their parents by completing the developmental coordination disorder questionnaire (DCD-Q-2). They were selected as the research sample of the DCD group using the MABC-2 test. Then, all subjects participated in the MABC-2 test in the pretest stage. Afterward, all groups played with the Nintendo console (4 games out of 12 games) for 8 weeks (24 Sessions), and each session lasted 20 minutes. After the intervention, all groups participated in the posttest phase, similar to the pretest. After confirming the normality of data distribution through the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test, we examined the research hypotheses and analyzed the data using the paired t test, combined multivariate analysis of variance, and Bonferroni post hoc test at a significance level of P≤0.05. Results The paired t test results showed a significant difference in the subscales of balance, aiming and receiving, manual skill, and motor proficiency between the two age groups of 10-12 and 13-15 years in DCD subjects; however, no significant difference was observed in the posttest scores of 10-12 and 13-15 years old healthy students. Also, the independent t test results showed a significant difference between the scores of motor proficiency in the posttest of healthy and DCD individuals, and the mean scores of the healthy individuals were higher than those of DCD students. The combined multivariate analysis of variance supported only the significant effect of group (healthy and DCD) on MABC-2 subscales, and the impacts of age and age*group were not significant. Conclusion The results of the present study show that exergame exercises significantly improve motor proficiency in DCD individuals; however, these interventions could not compensate for the developmental delay of these children compared to typically developed children. These results may be related to the duration of the interventions and the age range at the start of the interventions. These differences may disappear if appropriate interventions are presented at a younger age and for a long time.

The association between symptoms of developmental coordination disorder and neuropsychological characteristics in children with and without ADHD.

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) frequently co-occurs with developmental coordination disorder (DCD). This study aimed to evaluate the association between DCD symptoms and neuropsychological characteristics in children with and without ADHD. We recruited 298 children aged 5-12 years. Motor performance was assessed using the Developmental Coordination Disorder Questionnaire (DCDQ), while ADHD symptoms were assessed using the ADHD Rating Scale (ARS) and the Advanced Test of Attention (ATA). Cognitive characteristics were measured using the Wechsler Intelligence Scale, and behavioral characteristics were assessed using the Korean Personality Rating Scale for Children. The children had a mean age of 7.6 ± 1.7 years, with 214 (71.8%) being boys. Among children diagnosed with ADHD (n = 176), 39.2% exceeded the DCDQ cutoff score, compared to 4.1% in the neurotypical group (n = 122). In the correlation analysis, the DCDQ total score was significantly correlated with ARS, omission and commission errors in visual and auditory ATA, and full-scale intellectual quotient. In addition, symptoms of depression, social dysfunction, and psychosis were correlated with the DCDQ total score. In the between-group analysis, children with both ADHD and DCD exhibited more omission errors on the auditory ATA and behavioral problems related to depression, social dysfunction, and psychosis compared to children with ADHD only. Our study indicates that children with ADHD exhibit more difficulties in motor performance. Children with both ADHD and DCD may present with a greater burden of psychiatric conditions than children with ADHD only, suggesting the need for careful monitoring in clinical practice.

Prevalence, comorbidities, and profiles of neurodevelopmental disorders according to the DSM-5-TR in children aged 6 years old in a European region.

There are no studies that measure the prevalence and real comorbidities of neurodevelopmental disorders (NDDs) according to the DSM-5-TR in 6-year-old children in population and clinical samples or studies that measure them as a whole. The data on the prevalence of these disorders are usually disparate because of the estimation methods (direct/indirect), the type of sample (population/clinical/school), and the ages studied. The initial sample (289 subjects) was representative of 6-year-old children in the entire population of Menorca, obtained from pediatric primary care services (100% of the sample). The patients were divided into two groups based on the criterion of verification of clinical warning signs. One of the groups represented the clinical or experimental sample (EG) (81 subjects) at risk of NDDs; the other group was considered the control sample (CG) (210 subjects), and they were subjects without risk of suffering NDDs. A direct clinical assessment of the clinical sample was carried out, and they were administered the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC-V), the Clinical Evaluation of Language Fundamentals (CELF-5), the Battery for the evaluation of the processes of revised reading (Batería para la evaluación de los procesos de lectura revisada - PROLEC-R), the Test for the Diagnosis of Basic Mathematical Competences, (TEDI-MATH), and the Developmental Coordination Disorder Questionnaire (DCDQ). A total of 21.5% of the initial sample suffered from an NDD. A total of 2.4% presented autism spectrum disorder (ASD); 14% presented attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD); 0.34% presented mild intellectual disability; 9.54% presented communication disorder (CD) (5.8% language disorder, 3.4% phonological disorder, and 0.34% stuttering); 10% presented learning disorder with reading difficulties; 5.8% presented learning disorder with difficulties in writing; 3.11% presented learning disorder with difficulties in mathematics; 1% presented transitory tic disorder; 0.34% presented chronic tic disorder; 1% presented Tourette syndrome; 2% presented motor coordination disorder (MCD); and 0.34% presented stereotypic movement disorders. Male children were more affected than female children in general, with male/female ORs of 0.14/0.92 for the presence of comorbidities, 0.11/0.88 for combined ADHD, 0.06/0.87 for language disorder, 1.02/1.27 for MCD, and 1.39/1.02 for inattentive ADHD. In disadvantaged contexts, there was a higher prevalence of NDDs and comorbidities, unless the disorder was extreme, in which case only the NDD manifestations were presented. A significant proportion of the sample had not been previously diagnosed (88.6%); therefore, early detection programs are recommended to identify warning signs and develop policies that help and support the most disadvantaged sectors of the population.

Action-outcome Regularity Perceptual Sensitivity in Children with Developmental Coordination Disorder.

An internal model deficit is considered to underlie developmental coordination disorder (DCD); thus, children with DCD have an altered sense of agency (SoA), which is associated with depressive symptoms. Furthermore, the perception of action-outcome regularity is present in early development, is involved in the generation of SoA, and has roles in adaptive motor learning and coordinated motor skills. However, perceptual sensitivity to action-outcome regularity has not been examined in children with DCD. We investigated perceptual sensitivity to action-outcome regularity in 6-15-year-old children with DCD and age- and sex-matched typically developing (TD) children. Both groups were assessed for coordinated motor skills with the Movement Assessment Battery for Children-2nd Edition, while the DCD group was assessed with the DCD Questionnaire, Social Communication Questionnaire, Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder-Rating Scale, and Depression Self- Rating Scale for Children. Perceptual sensitivity to action-outcome regularity was significantly reduced in children with DCD. However, there was a significant correlation between perceptual sensitivity to action-outcome regularity and age in DCD and TD children. Perceptual sensitivity to action-outcome regularity was significantly lower in younger children with DCD than in younger and older TD children, but there were no significant differences between older children with DCD and younger and older TD children. The current results suggest that children with DCD have significantly reduced perceptual sensitivity to action-outcome regularity at younger ages, which may alter SoA and inhibit internal model development, thereby reducing motor skill coordination.

Enhancing Handwriting Performance of Children with Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) Using Computerized Visual Feedback.

Recent studies have analyzed the writing metrics of children with developmental coordination disorder (DCD) using computerized systems. To date, the use of computerized visual feedback to improve handwriting has not been investigated. This study aimed to examine the effects of computerized visual feedback on handwriting performance in time, spatial orientation, and pressure indices for children with DCD. Twenty-seven children aged 7 to 12 years with DCD assessed by the Movement Assessment Battery for Children and the Developmental Coordination Disorder Questionnaire received one weekly intervention session for 8 weeks, during which they twice copied an excerpt onto a tablet. Once, they received visual feedback where the writing color corresponded to the degree of pressure on the writing surface, and once they received no visual feedback. The two conditions were counterbalanced throughout the sessions. Pre-intervention sessions were compared with post-intervention sessions and with new texts for time, spatial orientation, and pressure measures. The findings revealed significantly decreased total and mean letter writing, in-air, and writing time and increased capacity in the visual feedback condition. In the spatial variables, a significant decrease in letter height variance was found. Pressure increased significantly throughout the intervention with visual feedback, whereas it decreased post-test in the writing task in both conditions and was maintained in the new text. Visual feedback intervention can increase the kinesthetic-haptic feedback required to regulate pressure during writing, promoting more efficient feedforward processes and improving output quality and capacity. The training effectiveness was transferable, and the intervention accessibility could increase student autonomy.