Temperament Development Research Articles

Breastfeeding and maternal sensitivity predict early infant temperament.

Research findings are inconclusive when it comes to whether breastfeeding is associated with the mother-infant relationship or infant temperament. We examined the association between breastfeeding at three months postpartum and infant temperament at 18 months postpartum and whether this link was affected by the mothers' anxiety and mediated by her sensitivity. We assessed 170 mothers for breastfeeding and anxiety using the Spielberger State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) at three months postpartum, maternal sensitivity using the Ainsworth Sensitivity Scale at six months postpartum and infant temperament using the Early Childhood Behaviour Questionnaire at 18 months postpartum. Mothers who breastfed at three months postpartum were more sensitive in their interactions with their infants at six months postpartum, and elevated sensitivity, in turn, predicted reduced levels of negative affectivity in infant temperament at 18 months postpartum. This indirect mediation persisted after controlling for confounders (effect ab = -0.0312 [0.0208], 95% CI = -0.0884 to -0.0031). A subsequent analysis showed that the mediation through sensitivity only occurred in women experiencing higher anxiety, with a STAI score ≥33.56 at three months (ab = -0.0250 [0.0179], 95% CI = -0.0759 to -0.0013). Our results suggest that breastfeeding and maternal sensitivity may have a positive impact on the early development of infant temperament.

Infant Diet And Resting Frontal 6‐10 Hz Power at 9 Months Are Associated with Gender‐Related Differences in Child Temperament at 3 Years

Temperament is strongly influenced by biological factors and shows gender differences, but it is not known how early diet and diet‐related neurodevelopment are related to temperament development. We related 6‐10 Hz resting frontal EEG power—associated with attention and emotional reactivity—measured at 9 mo to parent ratings on Carey Temperament Scales (CTS) at 3 yrs in breast‐fed (BF: 59 girls, 40 boys), milk formula‐fed (MF: 32 girls, 44 boys) and soy formula‐fed (SF: 32 girls, 40 boys) children. Boys and girls were compared separately across groups on CTS (ANOVAs) and EEG‐CTS relationships (linear regression). CTS ratings were in the normal range. Boys differed on scales of Intensity (SF < BF, MF, p < .01), Threshold (SF < BF, p < .01, MF, p = .051), and Persistence (SF > BF, p < .01, MF, p = .08) and girls on Rhythmicity (SF > BF, p = .03, MF, p = .07) and Persistence (SF > BF, p < .01, MF, p = .053). Significant EEG‐CTS relationships (p < .05) were more prevalent in boys (8/ 9 scales) than girls (2/9 scales) and described differences between SF and other groups. EEG‐CTS relationships were negative for SF but positive for BF and MF boys, and positive for SF but negative for BF and MF girls. These findings link differences in childhood temperament with infant diet and diet‐related neurodevelopment and suggest development of temperament‐sensitive behaviors regulated by frontal brain processes, e.g., socio‐emotional relations and executive functions, will differ in SF compared with BF and MF children. EEG‐CTS relationships suggest these diet‐related differences begin to emerge in infancy. Funded by USDA ARS CRIS 6251‐51000‐006‐03S

Cortisol in mother's milk across lactation reflects maternal life history and predicts infant temperament.

The maternal environment exerts important influences on offspring mass/growth, metabolism, reproduction, neurobiology, immune function, and behavior among birds, insects, reptiles, fish, and mammals. For mammals, mother's milk is an important physiological pathway for nutrient transfer and glucocorticoid signaling that potentially influences offspring growth and behavioral phenotype. Glucocorticoids in mother's milk have been associated with offspring behavioral phenotype in several mammals, but studies have been handicapped by not simultaneously evaluating milk energy density and yield. This is problematic as milk glucocorticoids and nutrients likely have simultaneous effects on offspring phenotype. We investigated mother's milk and infant temperament and growth in a cohort of rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatta) mother-infant dyads at the California National Primate Research Center (N = 108). Glucocorticoids in mother's milk, independent of available milk energy, predicted a more Nervous, less Confident temperament in both sons and daughters. We additionally found sex differences in the windows of sensitivity and the magnitude of sensitivity to maternal-origin glucocorticoids. Lower parity mothers produced milk with higher cortisol concentrations. Lastly, higher cortisol concentrations in milk were associated with greater infant weight gain across time. Taken together, these results suggest that mothers with fewer somatic resources, even in captivity, may be "programming" through cortisol signaling, behaviorally cautious offspring that prioritize growth. Glucocorticoids ingested through milk may importantly contribute to the assimilation of available milk energy, development of temperament, and orchestrate, in part, the allocation of maternal milk energy between growth and behavioral phenotype.

기질 및 성격검사의 통합의학적 활용

Objectives: The Temperament and Character Inventory (TCI), initially developed by Dr. Cloninger in 1986, has been studied from various perspectives in many countries; however, its application in Korea has been limited due to a lack of information regarding the clinical use of integrative medicine. Methods and Results: A systematic review of previous studies on the theoretical development, structure, and content of temperament and character scales, as well as their stability and variability, is presented. In addition, the distinctive features of TCI as a biopsychosocial model and its clinical application regarding well-being, coherence therapy, and person-centered medicine were systematically reviewed. Discussion and Conclusion: The promotion of well-being with Cloninger's personality model and its importance for integrative medicine were discussed. This study would contribute to the clinical application of TCI in Korea.

Maternal psychological state and infant’s temperament at three months

Objective: The study aimed to investigate the possible relationship between maternal psychological state in the perinatal period and the child’s temperament at 3 months postpartum. Background: The perinatal period is a phase of intense psychological complexity which may increase the risk of the development, or a recurrence of psychological disturbances in parents. The current literature highlights the potential negative effects of a perturbed maternal psychological state on fetal and newborn development. Among the consequences of fetal exposure to maternal states of depression or anxiety are increased inconsolable crying and sleep disturbance in the newborn, difficult temperament, motor and cognitive development delays in children and a higher risk of depression in adolescence. Methods: A longitudinal design using self-report measures of maternal mood, and maternal report of the infant’s temperament, was used. The sample comprised 107 Italian, low-risk nulliparous women. Maternal and infant variables were assessed in the third trimester of pregnancy and at 3 months postpartum. The variables measured included: maternal depression, anxiety, prenatal attachment, alexithymia, social support, maternal bonding with parents, stressful events, and the infant’s temperament. Results: Higher scores of antenatal depression and postnatal state anxiety were independent predictors of increased temperamental difficulties of the baby. Conclusion: The results support the hypothesis that maternal perinatal states of depression or anxiety are associated with increased difficulty in the temperament of the baby as perceived by mothers. This therefore supports the need for prevention-treatment programmes from the early stages of pregnancy.

The Effects of Soothing Techniques and Rough-and-Tumble Play on the Early Development of Temperament: A Longitudinal Study of Infants

A total of 189 infants (93 girls, 96 boys) were investigated longitudinally at ages 4, 8, 12, 18, and 24 months to examine the effects of soothing techniques (i.e., distracting infants by presenting novel objects) and rough-and-tumble play on the early development of temperament, particularly the emergence of Effortful Control. We used questionnaires to examine the frequency of use of soothing techniques and rough-and-tumble play. The Infant Behavior Questionnaire Revised (IBQ-R) and the Early Childhood Behavior Questionnaire (ECBQ) were used to assess temperament. A strong relationship was found between parental ratings of their infant's Orienting/Regulation and later Effortful Control. Caregivers’ use of distracting as a soothing technique during infancy was associated with higher Negative Affect in toddlers at 24 months. More surgent infants were involved in more rough-and-tumble play, with rough-and-tumble play frequencies positively correlated with surgency scores at 24 months.

Developing Attention: Behavioral and Brain Mechanisms.

Brain networks underlying attention are present even during infancy and are critical for the developing ability of children to control their emotions and thoughts. For adults, individual differences in the efficiency of attentional networks have been related to neuromodulators and to genetic variations. We have examined the development of attentional networks and child temperament in a longitudinal study from infancy (7 months) to middle childhood (7 years). Early temperamental differences among infants, including smiling and laughter and vocal reactivity, are related to self-regulation abilities at 7 years. However, genetic variations related to adult executive attention, while present in childhood, are poor predictors of later control, in part because individual genetic variationmay have many small effects and in part because their influence occurs in interaction with caregiver behavior and other environmental influences. While brain areas involved in attention are present during infancy, their connectivity changes and leads to improvement in control of behavior. It is also possible to influence control mechanisms through training later in life. The relation between maturation and learning may allow advances in our understanding of human brain development.

Maternal anxiety following delivery, early infant temperament and mother's confidence in caregiving.

A mother's emotional state is a well-known environmental factor that relates to the development of infant temperament. However, some relevant issues have not yet been fully explored. The current study examines the influence of determined maternal, contextual and perinatal variables on infant temperament and the mother's confidence in caregiving during the first weeks of life. A prospective study was carried out in three-hundred and seventeen newborns and their mothers. Perinatal and socio-demographic variables were recorded. The mother's anxiety and mood were measured in the first days after childbirth and again at 8 weeks. Infant temperament and the mother's confidence in caregiving were measured at 8 weeks. A mother's postpartum anxiety following delivery was the best predictor for most of the variables of infant temperament, including infant irritability (p = .001), and other child variables like infant sleep (p = .0003) and nursing difficulty (p = .001). Contextual-family variables, such as the number of people at home (p = .0024) and whether they were primiparous (p = .001), were the best predictors for a mother's confidence in caregiving. Support was found for an early effect of maternal anxiety on infant temperament. The results have clinical implications for postnatal psychological interventions.

Development of temperament in childhood: with reference to children's current food intake and maternal diet during pregnancy

Development of temperament in childhood: with reference to children's current food intake and maternal diet during pregnancy

Emotional and Behavioural Problems among Sheltered Homeless Children

Homelessness in children is a serious problem in the society. Factors leading to homelessness in Nepalese children are poverty, unemployment, multiple children, exposure to violence, caste based social discrimination etc. Children living out of their homes have problems in attachment, temperament, social skills, cognitive ability, and language development. Few non-governmental organizations that have started to look after these children but the mental health need is neglected. The study attempted to investigate the emotional and behavioural problems in homeless children in one of the shelters in Kathmandu. All the children (n=126) in the SAATHI Organization were included in the study. They were administered Child Behaviour Check List 6-18. Children with T-score ≥65 on externalising or internalising dimension were further evaluated in the Child Guidance Clinic for the final diagnosis based on DSM IV. The prevalence of emotional and behavioural problem among the participants was 36 (28.57%) [15 (26.31%) in boys and 21 (30.43%) in girls] based on CBCL/6-18 years and 29 (23.01%) [12 (21.05%) in boys and 17 (24.63%) in girls] based on final diagnosis. The conduct problems was the most common among the male children 5 (8.77%), followed by ODD 3 (5.26%), ADHD 2 (3.5%), Anxiety 2 (3.50%) whereas Anxiety is most common in female children 9 (13.04 %), followed by depression 5 (7.24%), conduct 3 (4.34%). The rate of emotional and behavioral disorder in homeless children in the study is similar to the school aged non homeless children in previous studies, which may be because of the protection provided by the shelters. This study highlighted the need for methodologically better studies in the field.

Analyse de la structure factorielle du questionnaire de tempérament EAS (version parents) auprès de deux échantillons d’enfants âgés de deux à cinq ans et de six à neuf ans

IntroductionThe EAS temperament survey (Buss & Plomin, 1984) allows the measurement of four heritable and relatively stable dimensions of temperament, that is, Activity, Emotionality, Sociability and Shyness. ObjectiveA French translation of this tool has been validated with children aged from 6 to 12years (Gasman et al., 2002), our goal is to extend the validation process to a group of younger children. MethodThe temperament of 350 children aged from 2 to 5years and of 290 children aged from 6 and 9years was assessed by the EAS and DOTS-R questionnaires (parental ratings). ResultsMulti-group confirmatory factor analysis allowed to confirm the measurement invariance and the structural invariance of the EAS (four-factor model) on both samples and showed that the scale scores are good approximations of the factor scores. Furthermore, there were no significant sex differences in temperament scores and we found that older children were on average less active and more emotional compared to younger ones. Finally, internal consistency and convergent validity of each scale were fairly satisfying. ConclusionThe EAS (parental ratings) can thus be used from the age of 2years, facilitating the study of temperament development during childhood.

Stressful Events and Temperament Change during Early and Middle Adolescence: The TRAILS Study

This project investigates how stressful events are related to deviations from normative temperament development during adolescence. Temperament traits were assessed at ages 11 and 16 years. Life–event data was captured using an interview (total n = 1197). Normative changes were found in all traits. A linear trend was found between the experience of stressful events and temperament development. Adolescents exposed to stressful events showed smaller decreases in fear and shyness, stronger decreases in effortful control and affiliation and smaller increases in high intensity pleasure. Exposure to stressful events was related to increases in frustration instead of decreases. Our results show that whereas normative development is mostly in the direction of maturation, adolescents who experienced stressful events showed less maturation of their temperament. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Investigating the development of temperament and character in school-aged children using a self-report measure

BackgroundDevelopmental studies of temperament and character dimensions are crucial for a better understanding of how genetic and environmental factors interact in shaping individual personality. However, although several studies have been conducted in adults, a few studies have addressed the evaluation of temperament and character in children. Here, we tested the suitability of self-report evaluation and the developmental trend of temperament and character dimensions among school-aged children using an Italian version of the junior Temperament and Character Inventory (jTCI). MethodsThe jTCI was completed by 572 Italian children (292 girls and 280 boys) aged 8 to 12 years. We evaluated the internal consistency of the 7 jTCI scales at each age, the intercorrelations between the scales, and the factorial model of the questionnaires. Furthermore, we tested the differences between the development of the temperament and character dimensions in girls and boys. ResultsAlthough the data from 8-year children showed unacceptably low internal consistency, better reliability was observed for older children. Intercorrelations and factor analysis partially confirmed the hypothesized structure of the jTCI items, with problems observed for some items of the Novelty Seeking, Harm Avoidance, Reward Dependence (RD), and Self-Directedness scales. Furthermore, in keeping with previous studies, girls presented lower scores in Novelty Seeking and higher RD, Self-Directedness, and Cooperativeness scales than did boys, with the between-sex difference in RD becoming larger at older ages. ConclusionsAlthough the use of the self-administered jTCI in clinical settings should be cautious, it may serve as a useful complementary instrument to describe the development of personality in childhood.

Effects of age at school entry (ASE) on the development of non-cognitive skills: Evidence from psychometric data

We identify effects of age at school entry (ASE) on the development of child temperament. Our analysis is based on psychometric measures from a longitudinal cohort study of children in the Rhine-Neckar region in central Germany. In children with a higher ASE due to a birthday late in the year, we find more favorable outcomes with respect to several temperamental dimensions: these children are more persistent and less often hyperactive. The findings are robust if we control for the respective temperamental dimension before entering school. We also show that the ASE effect on persistence is stable over time by comparing the children at age eight and age eleven, after the children have entered Germany's segregated secondary-school tracks. At age eleven, we additionally find significant ASE effects on adaptability to change. Overall, the results point to a high degree of malleability in the considered non-cognitive skills after school entrance. By contrast, we do not find a significant effect of ASE on cognitive skills as measured by IQ.

Effects of Age at School Entry (ASE) on the Development of Non-Cognitive Skills: Evidence from Psychometric Data

We identify effects of age at school entry (ASE) on the development of child temperament. Our analysis is based on psychometric measures from a longitudinal cohort study of children in the Rhine-Neckar region in central Germany. In children with a higher ASE due to a birthday late in the year, we find more favorable outcomes with respect to several temperamental dimensions: These children are more persistent and less often hyperactive. The findings are robust if we control for the respective temperamental dimension before entering school. We also show that the ASE effect on persistence is stable over time by comparing the children at age eight and age eleven, after the children have entered Germany’s segregated secondary-school tracks. At age eleven, we additionally find significant ASE effects on adaptability to change. Overall, the results point to a high degree of malleability in the considered non-cognitive skills after school entrance.

Social Baseline Theory: The Role of Social Proximity in Emotion and Economy of Action

AbstractSocial proximity and interaction attenuate cardiovascular arousal, facilitate the development of nonanxious temperament, inhibit the release of stress hormones, reduce threat‐related neural activation, and generally promote health and longevity. Conversely, social subordination, rejection and isolation are powerful sources of stress and compromised health. Drawing on the biological principle of economy of action, perception/action links, and the brain’s propensity to act as a Bayesian predictor, Social Baseline Theory (SBT) proposes that the primary ecology to which human beings are adapted is one that is rich with other humans. Moreover, SBT suggests that the presence of other people helps individuals to conserve important and often metabolically costly somatic and neural resources through the social regulation of emotion.

Applying child specific knowledge in reflective dialogues: Presentation of an approach

The vantage point of this article is the growing body of knowledge about how the child's interaction with its caregivers impacts on later development. With reference to the Transaction Model it is argued that knowledge about child specific and parental premises for developmentally supportive relationships is both applicable and necessary for therapists working with troubled children. The article, furthermore, argues that the parents' understanding of their child's behaviour and developmental characteristics is an obvious target when we face families with troubled children in therapy. The relevance and applicability of three fields of research; attachment, temperament and narrative development is explored and a model for applying knowledge from these fields in a family therapy context using participant observation and reflecting dialogues is presented.

Similarity in temperament between mother and offspring rhesus monkeys: sex differences and the role of monoamine oxidase-a and serotonin transporter promoter polymorphism genotypes.

Temperament is usually considered biologically based and largely inherited, however, the environment can shape the development of temperament. Allelic variation may confer differential sensitivity to early environment resulting in variations in temperament. Here we explore the relationship between measures of temperament in mothers and their first-born offspring and the role of genetic sensitivity in establishing the strength of these associations. Temperament ratings were conducted on 3- to 4-month-old rhesus monkeys after a 25-hr biobehavioral assessment. Factor analysis revealed a four-factor structure of temperament. Females assessed as infants have reproduced and their offspring have also been evaluated through the standardized testing paradigm. Canonical correlation analysis revealed statistically significant associations between factor scores of mothers and sons, but not mothers and daughters. Further, offspring possessing the high activity, "low risk," alleles of the rhMAOA-LPR or rh5-HTTLPR showed statistically significant canonical correlations, whereas those possessing other alleles did not, suggesting differential genetic sensitivity to the normative early experience of maternal temperament.

Prenatal maternal anxiety and early childhood temperament

The consequences of exposure to prenatal maternal anxiety for the development of child temperament were examined in a sample of 120 healthy, 2-year-old children. Prenatal maternal state and pregnancy-specific anxiety (PSA) were measured five times during pregnancy, and maternal state anxiety was measured again at 2 years post partum. Child temperament was measured at 2 years using the Early Childhood Behavior Questionnaire. The relationship between the trajectory of maternal anxiety across gestation and negative affectivity was evaluated using hierarchical linear growth curve modeling. Higher maternal PSA between 13 and 17 weeks of gestation was associated with increased negative temperament in the children. This association could not be explained by postnatal maternal anxiety, demographic, or obstetric factors. Prenatal maternal state anxiety was not associated with child temperament. These findings demonstrate that PSA early in gestation has a distinctive influence on the developing fetus.

Temperaments of premature infants

Temperament is the first distinct and stable personality after infants' birth. The development and type of the temperament is mainly associated with genetics factors, premature birth, low birth weight and clinical complications. This article describes the domestic and abroad researches and progress on premature infants' temperament in recent years, including research methods, temperament characteristic and influence factors of temperament types, and emphersizes the importance of the study on the premature infants' temperament. We raise the point that analyzing the temperament of premature children in early stage could discover temperament disorders earlier, and guide targeted training or behavior education based on different temperaments, which do good to intelligence and psychological development of premature infants. Key words: Temperament; Premature birth; Low birth weight; Growth; Influence factors