Small Farm Development Research Articles

The Development of Automated Information Systems to reduce the Digital Divide in Agricultural Communities: The Case of the Agricultural Information Service in Tierra Blanca (SIT), Costa Rica

This study aims to analyze the phenomena of the digital divide in the community of Tierra Blanca and presents the case of the Agricultural Information Service in Tierra Blanca as a solution to reduce the digital divide in this farming community. Based on the promise that Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) have a great importance in today´s society, the article analyzes the concept of digital divide composed by three components: access to information, connectivity and digital literacy, contextualized in farming communities. The paper studies the relationship between the digital divide and the productive, political, economic, social, cultural and commercial business development of small farmers. Based on the collaboration of a group of farmers in Tierra Blanca, the impact of the digital divide is considered specifically in this community. The case of the Agricultural Information Service in Tierra Blanca is presented as an automated information system that allows to combat lags generated by this phenomena. The study concludes that the case of the Agricultural Information Service in Tierra Blanca is an initiative that has reduced the digital divide in a comprehensive way for farmers, but the development of comprehensive policies and strategies at the community and national levels is necessary, seeking the involvement of various institutions and communities.

Re-examining the inverse relationship between farm size and efficiency

Purpose– Whether there exists an inverse relationship (IR) between farm size and its efficiency remains a hotly debated question among agricultural economists. In most studies to date, farm efficiency is measured by land productivity. Thus, the IR actually measures the relationship between farm size and land productivity. The purpose of this paper is to examine and understand the IR from a novel angle by using multiple definitions of farm efficiency indicators like labor productivity, profit ratio, total factor productivity (TFP) and technical efficiency (TE).Design/methodology/approach– By using the farm-level panel data from Hubei province in China from 1999 to 2003, this paper employs the two-way fixed effect model of panel data and the stochastic frontier analysis of Battese and Coelli model to investigate the relationship between farm size and its production efficiency derived from the multiple definitions of production efficiency indicators including land productivity, labor productivity, profit ratio, TFP and TE.Findings– The study confirmed the IR between land productivity and farm size, as in many formal studies. However, the relationship between farm size and other agricultural efficiency indicators may be positive, negative or uncorrelated at, depending on how the farm efficiency is defined. Therefore, the paper concluded that the relationship between farm size and its production efficiency is mixed. This paper provides economic explanations for the IR through the comprehensive study using the expansion of agricultural efficiency indicators.Practical implications– Because different agricultural efficiency indicators have different policy implications for China's future agricultural and land policy, the findings have tremendous policy implications, particularly in terms of the current debate on large or small farm development strategy, the also so-called “go big or small” agricultural strategy. In this sense, the Chinese household responsibility system has played a critical role in its agriculture and will continue to play a critical role in terms of social security and social equality. Any reform to this system should proceed with caution.Originality/value– While most existing studies only try to explain the IR from the perspective of land productivity, this paper attempts to propose a novel angle to examine the IR by using multiple definitions of agricultural efficiency and hopes to find some new conclusions.

CITRICULTURA E AGRONEGÓCIO COOPERATIVO NO BRASIL

The citrus chain has gained importance in Brazilian agribusiness with market expansion and improvement activity. Brazil is highlighted in orange production and export of fruit juice. Considering that the citrus industry as well as other agricultural activities, involves processing of fruits, this activity requires greater investment and industrialization. Thus, the system of citrus agribusiness encompasses many procedures, and cooperatives and associations are forms of economic organizations that often enable the development of small farmers and provide ways to insert themselves in the competitive market. This study seeks to make a panorama of citrus, with a focus on orange and tangerine, and describe the importance of agribusiness cooperative. Thus, we conclude that the citrus sector has great importance for the Brazilian agribusiness and the presence of a cooperative may be a favorable factor for the growth of small producers.

Educational projects – support for development of tourism and rural areas in Serbia

The paper presents three mini-projects that have been implemented by The Institute of Agricultural Economics – Belgrade in the 2006–2008 period. Those were special educational projects in agriculture and rural development, whereas extension activities were concentrated onto three topics: farm management, support of rural development and improvement of small farms. Implementation of projects took place on the territory of the South Banat County and some Belgrade city communes. The projects intended to solve current problems of sustainable agriculture and rural development. Within the projects there were identified priorities related to investments, strategic planning and tourism. Educational activities were aimed at a number of holders or members of their registered farms. Dynamics of the projects' implementation included introduction and discussion with a number of farmers, formation of small groups, preparation and making of materials, a series of theoretical lectures and determination of the joint work results. Education programs are aiming at improvement of the farm holders' knowledge in the field of business and management. Specific objectives of training are to increase sales of goods and services at domestic and foreign market, to increase competitiveness in a particular market, to achieve higher profits, to create new jobs and improve living conditions in rural areas. Evaluation of projects was related to determination of level, to which there were achieved set objectives, then to define implementation of projects in accordance with the plan, as well as to determine an impact of educational activities to promotion of knowledge concerning business and management.

The Future of Small Farms

Summary Interest in agriculture for growth and poverty reduction reawakened in the early 2000s made all the keener by the sudden rise in cereals prices on world markets in 2007–08. But is it still possible to drive agricultural growth through small farms, as happened in the green revolution? Whether small farms have a future was debated at a workshop held in Wye, United Kingdom, in June 2005. It concluded that small farm development is not just desirable for poverty reduction, but also feasible, even in changing circumstances and particularly those of more concentrated supply chains with more demanding buyers. That said, while much that needs to be done is straightforward, such as provision of public goods, fostering the institutional innovations to allow small farmers to deal with the emerging supply chains will require patient work, tailored to specific circumstances. The future of all smallholders may well not lie in farming, but the measures to stimulate the rural nonfarm economy and provide jobs for those leaving farming—a favorable rural investment climate, provision of public goods, institutional development—are largely the same as those for agricultural development as well.

Análise morfométrica como subsídio ao zoneamento territorial: o caso das bacias do Córrego Carioca, Córrego do Bação e Ribeirão Carioca na região do Alto Rio das Velhas-MG

A região do Alto Rio das Velhas está inserida no contexto da província geológica do Quadrilátero Ferrífero, na região Central de Minas, sendo caracterizada pelo uso conflituoso dos terrenos, com intenso desenvolvimento da mineração, crescente ocupação urbana e forte expansão imobiliária. Os diversos processos erosivos, os mananciais assoreados e as áreas degradadas são outros problemas ambientais observados. Esse estudo analisou as características morfométricas da rede de drenagem e do relevo das bacias do Córrego Carioca, Córrego do Bação e Ribeirão Carioca, afluentes do rio Itabirito, tributário do rio das Velhas, visando a auxiliar na compreensão da vulnerabilidade natural dos terrenos às intervenções antrópicas, na compreensão dos processos erosivos e a na definição do zoneamento territorial, além de complementar análises realizadas em outros estudos, objetivando a compreensão da dinâmica superficial na área. As bacias do Córrego do Bação e Ribeirão Carioca mostraram índices morfométricos que as caracterizam como as mais vulneráveis às intervenções antrópicas e aos processos erosivos. devido à morfologia suave, a bacia do ribeirão Carioca é a que apresenta condições menos restritivas à ocupação para fins imobiliários, principalmente para utilização para chacreamento. Conclui-se que parâmetros morfométricos contribuem para a compreensão da vulnerabilidade de terrenos à erosão, permitindo um melhor ordenamento territorial de bacias hidrográficas.

Export competitiveness and pro-poor growth in the shrimp industry in Bangladesh

As the export of shrimp from developing countries grows, food safety and other standards required by global buyers become increasingly stringent. Taking the example of the shrimp industry in Bangladesh, this article examines the potential conflict between efforts to enhance export competitiveness by complying with these standards and the pursuit of pro-poor growth with maximum small farmer participation. In order to comply with global standards, the food industry needs to coordinate different activities along the value chain. The shrimp industry in Bangladesh, which involves many small farmers in shrimp culture, has yet to develop an effective mechanism to facilitate the necessary coordination. One of the possible ways to overcome this problem is to consolidate the supply base in ways that would reduce small farmer involvement. Export promotion requires policy support to strengthen the entire industry's capacity to comply with complex global standards. Small farmer development, on the other hand, needs policies to enhance their livelihood security and reduce vulnerability. In theory, both objectives could be achieved simultaneously by integrating small farmers more effectively in the export-oriented shrimp industry. In practice, export promotion would require measures to re-organize the supply chain with consequences which may conflict with sustainable livelihoods of small farmers.

Small Farm Systems to Feed Hungry Asia

Small farms are an integral part of Asian agriculture. They are characterized by the preponderance and emphasis on mixed crop–animals systems across a variety of agroecological zones. Mixed farming is the backbone of agriculture, many categories of which are models of diversification, efficiency and resilience in Asia. In global terms, small farms in Asia account for an estimated 87% of all farms of under two hectares of land. About 52% of these farms have <1 ha, with the smallest sizes (0.3–0.6 ha) being found in China, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka and Indonesia. There are three types of small farms: in irrigated areas, rainfed zones and plantation agriculture. The first category greatly benefited from policy support and massive resource inputs through the‘green revolution’, while the second was bypassed by it, but continues to produce the bulk of the ruminant meats and milk. The third type remains neglected. The rural poor are mainly small farmers and landless agricultural labourers; their characteristics are described in detail. Irrespective of their various definitions, the key descriptors are deprivation, subsistence, illiteracy, survival, and because of globalization, vulnerability. Data from various sources indicate some key features concerning Asian agriculture: about 83% of the agricultural area is rainfed; between 51% and 55% of the total population of cattle and goats is found here; and about 59–60% of poor livestock keepers are found on mixed farms. The development of small farms in rainfed environments is a priority for the future and affirmative action is imperative. The strategies for development include the promotion of animal production as the entry point for food production and total factor productivity; integrated use of natural resources; improved feeding and nutrition; interdisciplinary, participatory and holistic approaches to address system constraints; and strengthening access to information and delivery systems. Effective policies are urgently required to spur this initiative; these should include development policy for small farm systems; intensifying the role of animals in integrated systems; improved rural–urban marketing linkages, infrastructure and communications. The development pathways include needs-based intensification of animal production systems; improving diversification with the appropriate mix of animals that can be integrated with annual and perennial crops; ensuring access to improved technologies and markets; strengthening empowerment; promotion of cooperatives and agri-business; and sustained pro-poor initiatives to reduce poverty and hunger that are consistent with income growth, socioeconomic benefits, improved livelihoods and self-reliance.

Study of the Dairy Cattle Management Systems at Farmer`s Level in Jessore District of Bangladesh

This study was conducted to know the management system, to determine cost and benefit, to identify constrains and to make recommendations for development of such small dairy farms in Jessor e District. From this study, it was revealed that the milch cow per farm was 5.12 and average milk yield per day per cow was 5.78 liter. Cows were inseminated 76% by artificially and 24% by both natural and artificial means. About 68% roughage was used as dry and the rest used as green grass. Fifty four percent, 24% and 22% farms had semi pucca, kacha and pucca houses, respectively for their animals with 90% proper ventilation and 66% proper drainage system. Milking done by male 76%, female 20% and both 4%. Milk was sold to neighbors, vendors, restaurants and sweet makers. The average market price of milk per liter was Tk. 14.32. The average production cost per cow per year was Tk.. 17,790.83. Feed cost was Tk.. 14,024.54, which was 78.83% of production cost. On the basis of some problems reported by farm owners, some recommendations are made for sound dairy development in the study area.

Export competitiveness and pro-poor growth in the shrimp industry in Bangladesh

As the export of shrimp from developing countries grows, food safety and other standards required by global buyers become increasingly stringent. Taking the example of the shrimp industry in Bangladesh, this article examines the potential conflict between efforts to enhance export competitiveness by complying with these standards and the pursuit of pro-poor growth with maximum small farmer participation. In order to comply with global standards, the food industry needs to coordinate different activities along the value chain. The shrimp industry in Bangladesh, which involves many small farmers in shrimp culture, has yet to develop an effective mechanism to facilitate the necessary coordination. One of the possible ways to overcome this problem is to consolidate the supply base in ways that would reduce small farmer involvement. Export promotion requires policy support to strengthen the entire industry's capacity to comply with complex global standards. Small farmer development, on the other hand, needs policies to enhance their livelihood security and reduce vulnerability. In theory, both objectives could be achieved simultaneously by integrating small farmers more effectively in the export-oriented shrimp industry. In practice, export promotion would require measures to re-organize the supply chain with consequences which may conflict with sustainable livelihoods of small farmers.

Biotechnologies. Conséquences socio-économiques

The actual technological revolution is largely sustained by developments in biotechnology. The rapid acquisition of knowledge in biological sciences, coupled with the advancement in robotics and computer sciences and with the multiplication of bio-industries, have caused a worldwide disruption of socio-economical conditions. Some remarks on these consequences are emphasized here, with respect to agribusiness, health and the environment. Agriculture now depends on upstream related industries and food producers are under increasing pressure from food transformers and distributors. In this situation, genetically modified organisms are introduced on the market. Both their advantages (e.g., extensive production, enlargement of the distribution areas of species, lowering the use of pesticides, synthesis of micronutrients and pharmaceutical essences, materials for interspecies transplant) and risks (e.g., deepening of the N-S rupture, settlement of farming, health and environment hazards) are stressed. In the health field biotechnologies are involved in the research for the improvement of fitness and lifetime primarily for those living in rich countries, in the increasing cost of public health care, in the situation of senior citizens. Biotechnologies are also at the basis of health problems (listeriose, diseases due to animal feeding diet). In the environmental field, challenges are the increasing shortage of water resources, pollutions of different nature, and the global warming of the earth. At the entry of the xxi century, will biotechnologies allow the development of small farms, with the agricultural practice based on science of “functional food”? Does the knowledge of genome expressions and the development of proteomic analyses allow the prediction and the prevention of genetic diseases and certain forms of cancer? Does the discovery of new vaccines allow the eradication of parasitoses such as flu, AIDS, malaria and various incoming viral diseases? In the genome therapy will conclusive recovery be achieved? All these results could be obtained in the context of the need for an universal health right and an appropriate control of health cost? Will biotechnologies help discover the sources of pollutions and facilitate their eradication and decontamination? Will their applications in energetic industries (biofuels, biogases) become profitable? Will the necessary regulation of the conditions of the new markets meet success? The granting of patents is one of the difficulties to deal with. Will the oligarchic powers of the economical actors be able to keep in balance with the political powers? In democracy, all citizens have to participate in the decisions concerning their way of life. Are they interested? Is it possible to democratically regulate the controlable effects of biotechnologies? These are the questions which are to be dealt with in this paper.

Agroindustry for rural and small farmer development: issues and lessons from India

This article examines the priority given to agroindustries in India in the context of their role in rural and small farmer development. The features and constraints of agroindustry are examined to assess their real and potential contribution and challenges faced. Institutional and organizational models that have been tried or proposed in India are evaluated from the point of view of performance and contribution to rural and small farmer development. The article then draws policy and managerial implications.

Characterization of Partially Purified Cellulase From Muscadine Grapes (Vitis rotundifoliaMichx.)

Center for Viticultural Science and Small Farm Development, Florida A&amp;M University, Tallahassee, Florida 32307. The unique flavor of muscadine grapes has been exploited in the production of value-added grape products and for blending in juices and wines. Juice yield may be increased through the synergistic reaction of naturally occurring cellulase with native enzymes. The objective of this study was to characterize partially purified cellulase from muscadine grapes and to determine optimal conditions for natural cellulase action. The 40% to 60% ammonium sulfate fraction was isolated, and the effects of pH (3.0 to 8.0), temperature (40°C to 70°C), metal ions, inhibitors, and other substances were investigated. Reaction of cellulase with different substrates was investigated to determine whether the enzyme had endo- or exoglucanase activity. Cellulase from muscadine grapes had an optimum pH of 4.0 and maximum temperature of 45°C. The enzyme remained stable at temperatures up to 50°C for one hour but lost activity rapidly at 60°C and over. Zn²⁺ and Mg²⁺ inhibited cellulase activity 32% and 30%, respectively, at a concentration of 10 m<i>M</i>, while Cu²⁺ and Fe²⁺ stimulated enzyme activity. The enzyme degraded CM-cellulose, cellotetraose, and cellopentaose as an endoglucanase and cleaved aglycosidic bonds in <i>p</i>-nitrophenyl-ß-D-cellobioside as an exoglucanase. Cellulase activity was confirmed by the ability to degrade CM-cellulose to form a zone of clearing in cellulose-polyacrylamide gel.

WHAT CAN WE LEARN FROM PREVIOUS SMALL FARMER DEVELOPMENT STRATEGIES IN SOUTH AFRICA? / WAT KAN ONS LEER UIT VORIGE KLEINBOERONTWKKELINGSTRATEGIEË IN SUID-AFRIkA

This article firstly gives a short chronological overview of the small farmer development concept in South Africa and shows how this was generally associated with the traditional black rural areas and subsistence agriculture. This restricted the wider application of this concept. Valuable lessons however can and must be learnt from this experience because small farmer programmes is currently viewed as an important aspect of agricultural development in South Africa. The discussion then highlights several problems of which policy constraints, insufficient participation, lack of ownership, ad hoc participant selection, lack of property rights to farm land, ridged project planning and design, the incorrect choice of a farming model and deficient support services played a significant role-all issues which are valid in the current restructuring environment in the country. In conclusion a number of “rules” are proposed for future small farmer development schemes.

A Framework for the Rapid Appraisal of Factors that Influence the Adoption and Impact of New Agricultural Technology

The number of variables that influence farmers' decision-making is enormous. In theory, diagnostic research for small farm development should consider all these factors so as to determine their relative importance. In practice, many of them, particularly those of a socio-cultural or political nature, are not taken into account at all. The central argument of this paper is that in the initial stage of diagnostic research, a rapid appraisal of all factors must be made to select for further research those that seem to have the greatest potential impact on decision-making. A framework for this appraisal is presented, together with its application in adaptive research on rice cultivation in the Dominican Republic.

Small farmer development: Experiences of commonwealth developing countries

Small farmer development initiatives of commonwealth developing countries were reviewed to evaluate the magnitude and dimensions of the problem, the impact of on-going development projects on small farmers and to identify appropriate strategies for small farmer development. Small farmers, sharing 61% to 86% farming households and 8% to 26% of the total arable land of a country, pose a devastating problem in countries where their growth rate is higher than population growth rate. The discriminating mechanisms of ongoing development programmes may have hastened pauperization, resulting in this high growth rate of small farmers. The lack of clear definition, differentiation, a system of pre-identification and registration of small farmers and a selective-client technology-diffusion approach of extension systems are some of the constraints of implementing development programmes. Their impact on small farmers was therefore reported to be poor, unsatisfactory or disappointing in most developing countries. However, some positive results were reported in India because of her growth-cum-beneficiary oriented strategy with the focus of all programme benefits in favour of the smaller and poorest farmers. A strong coordinating body and a nation-wide programme need to be commissioned for small farmer development with a shift from technology-diffusion selective-farmer systems, to the problem-solving all-farmer approach of the rural extension system.

Socialist transition in the capitalist periphery: A case study of agriculture in Zimbabwe

Zimbabwe's liberation struggle yielded a government publically committed to socialist transition. The plan was for ZANU-PF, the ruling party, to seize control of the state and restructure the economy as part of a Marxist-Leninist vanguard party. A primary transformation objective was to develop black agriculture through the establishment of producer cooperatives and state farms while increasing support to peasant farmers. Internal and external constraints, international pressure, and a growing class alliance between the black bourgeoisie, white-settler farmers and emergent peasant producers effectively stifled prospects for radical agrarian restructuring. A conservative bi-modal agricultural strategy became the backbone of government policy. Large-scale capitalist agriculture was maintained and supported. A small-farm development effort was increasingly targeted to ‘progressive’ black farmers. At the present time, class formation in Zimbabwe's labor reserves is accelerating. Food surpluses have not resulted in improved nutrition nationally. Historical processes of black farm marginalization—particularly in semi-arid regions and amongst unwaged households—continue. Capitalist consolidation of white-settler agriculture is accelerating the substitution of labor for capital at a time when national unemployment is skyrocketing. The capital and land resources necessary to restructure agriculture are monopolized by large-scale capitalist farmers. The development of capitalism in Zimbabwean agriculture is generating growth but intensifying spatial and social agrarian differentiation. This is consistent with classical Marxian interpretations of the agrarian question. It is unlikely that rural Zimbabweans will experience anything resembling a socialist transition in the short-term. But numerous contradictions associated with capitalist agricultural development may ultimately create socio-economic conditions supportive of a socialist economic development strategy. Political pressures for land reform are presently intensifying. In Zimbabwe, the struggle for control of political power and economic resources has shifted from race to class in a very short period of time.

Strategic Issues in Watershed Development

In the Asian region, there is a complex of issues related to increasing soil loss, rainfall runoff, land degradation, irregular stream flows and poverty that can best be understood within the framework of watersheds. This article* develops the rationale for a watershed management approach by discussing the nature and significance of some of the intercon nections between upland and lowland areas. Focusing on the promotion of environmen tally sound on-site development, the article examines constraints and opportunities for expanding output while reducing erosion, and concludes by proposing specific action and approaches, centred on small farm development and common property management, that development agencies should pursue in their operations.

REVIEWS/COMPTES RENDUS/BESPRECHUNGEN

Book reviewed in this article:Fennell R, (1987, 2nd. Edition), The Common Agricultural Policy of the European CommunityHadwiger, D.F. &amp; W.P. Browne, eds. (1987), Public Policy and Agricultural TechnologyStevens, R.D. &amp; C.L. Jabara (1988), Agricultural Development Principles. Economic Theory and Empirical EvidenceBan, A.W. van den &amp; H.S. Hawkins (1988), Agricultural ExtensionRöling, N. (1988), Extension Science ‐ Information Systems in Agricultural DevelopmentMorss, E. et. al. (1976), Strategies for Small Farmer Development ‐ an Empirical Study of Rural Development ProjectsChambers, (1983), ‘Rural Development ‐ Putting the Last first’Hall, A. &amp; J. Midgley, eds. (1988), Development Policies. Sociological PerspectivesQuarles van Ufford, P. &amp; M. Schoffeleers, eds. (1988), Religion and Development. Towards an Integrated ApproachL. Fortmann &amp; J.W. Bruce, eds. (1988), Whose Trees? Proprietary Dimensions of ForestryCosgrove, D. &amp; S. Daniels, eds. (1988), The Iconography of LandscapeBlunden, J. &amp; N. Curry (1988), A Future for Our CountrysideMansvelt Beck, J. (1988), The Rise of a Subsidized Periphery in SpainWilson, S. (1988), Feuding, Conflict and Banditry in Nineteenth‐Century CorsicaAganbegyan, A. (1988), The Challenge: Economics of PerestroikaSinclair, P.R., ed. (1988), A Question of Survival: The Fisheries and Newfoundland SocietyAbujaber, R.S. (1989), Pioneers over Jordan. The Frontier of Settlement in Transjordan, 1810–1914Davis, G. &amp; S. Daniels, ed. (1988). Indonesia. The Transmigration Program in Perspective

Obstacles to Small Farm Development in the Commonwealth Caribbean

Abstract. Small farms now form the locus of attempts to develop agriculture in the English‐speaking Caribbean. Attempts to boost extra regional export need to be coupled with closer cooperation among the 12 nations to substitute food imports from outside the region. A series of macroeconomic and sectoral constraints are working to insure that export agriculture is accorded higher priority than production of staples for the domestic market. In this way the needs of the region's poorest farmers tend to be overlooked.1