Development Of Mixed Cryoglobulinemia Research Articles

Коморбидные состояния как внепеченочные проявления хронической HCV-инфекции

Chronic hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection is a serious public health problem. In 2022, more than 33.8 thousand cases of chronic hepatitis C virus (HCV) were registered in the Russian Federation, with a total economic burden of RUB 60.9 billion. In addition to liver damage, a significant number of patients with CHC have various comorbid conditions, the development of which may be due to extrahepatic replication of HCV. In clinical practice, it is difficult to prove the association of comorbid pathology with extrahepatic manifestations of HCV. This literature review presents the results of meta-analyses and systematic studies that demonstrate the development of extrahepatic manifestations in chronic HCV infection. The data on cardiovascular and endocrine system damage, development of mixed cryoglobulinemia, neurological disorders are discussed. The analysis of scientific studies on the influence of HCV therapy with direct antiviral drugs on the course of comorbid pathology is carried out, personalized approaches to antiviral therapy for HCV patients with comorbid pathology and the prospects of clinical research to study this problem are substantiated. Key words: chronic HCV infection, chronic hepatitis C, extrahepatic manifestations, comorbid conditions, direct antiviral drugs

Cryoglobulinemia and cryoglobulinemic vasculitis: etiological aspects and pathophysiological associations

The term cryoglobulinemia (CG) is used when detecting serum immunoglobulins that reversibly precipitate and form a gel at a temperature below 37 °C and dissolve when the temperature rises above 37 °C. Type I CG consists of only one isotype or a subclass of monoclonal immunoglobulins, while types II and III are classified as mixed CG (MCG) that is primarily characterized by the presence of immunoglobulins G and M. Types II and II-III MCG can result in cryoglobulinemic vasculitis (CGV) more frequently, whereas type III can lead to this condition less frequently. The presence of type I cryoglobulins is always associated with B-cell lymphoproliferative diseases. On the contrary, type II or type III MCG is more commonly associated with systemic autoimmune diseases and chronic infections. Thus, hepatitis C virus infection contributes to the development of MCG in 80–90% of cases. CGV is considered a rare disease worldwide (<5 cases per 10,000 people in the general European and North American populations). Among autoimmune diseases, primary Sjögren's syndrome (Sjögren's disease), systemic lupus erythematosus, and rheumatoid arthritis are most often associated with MCG. The pathogenetic role of cryoglobulins in inducing vasculitis is associated with both leukocyte recruitment to the vessels and deposition of immune complexes, with complement system activation and microvascular damage. The pathogenesis of MCG is associated with B-cell lymphoproliferation, autoantibody production, immunoglobulin synthesis, rheumatoid factor activity and the subsequent formation of cryoprecipitated immune complexes in conjunction with ineffective cryoglobulin clearance by monocytes and/or macrophages. This review contains updated information on the epidemiology, etiology, and pathogenesis of CG, with particular emphasis on MCG and CGV.

Interaction of polymorphism of the interleukin-6 gene with immunological damages and their role in the development of mixed cryoglobulinemia in patients with chronic hepatitis C

Aim. To determine the role of the relationship of immunological disorders with interleukin-6 gene polymorphism in the formation of HCV-associated mixed cryoglobulinemia. Materials and methods. The study included 149 patients with chronic hepatitis C. The polymorphism of the IL-6 gene (rs1800795) was determined by the method of polymerase chain reaction, the quantitative content of IL-6, RF IgM and IgG by enzyme immunoassay, cryoglobulins by spectrophotometric method. The patients were divided into groups depending on the polymorphism of the IL-6 gene and the presence of mixed cryoglobulinemia. Results. The frequency of formation of HCV-associated mixed cryoglobulinemia depended on the polymorphism of the IL-6 gene. In patients with chronic hepatitis C with mixed cryoglobulinemia, the frequency of registration of the CC genotype of the IL-6 gene was lower than in patients without mixed cryoglobulinemia, namely, in 9.7 % versus 28.6 % of patients. The presence of the G-allele, namely the CG/GG genotypes of the IL-6 gene polymorphism, was more often detected in patients with mixed cryoglobulinemia, namely, in 90.3 % of patients against 71.4 % of patients without signs of mixed cryoglobulinemia (χ 2 = 8.94, P = 0.003). In the presence of G-allele, the quantitative content of IL-6 inthe serum of the general group of patients with CHC was higher than in healthy people (P 0.05). The highest levels of IL-6 were recorded in patients with HCV-associated mixed cryoglobulinemia who had the G-allele. The content of IL-6 in the blood serum of these patients exceeded the indicators of both healthy people (P < 0.001) and the results of patients without mixed cryoglobulinemia (P < 0.01). In patients with chronic hepatitis C with mixed cryoglobulinemia, even in the presence of the CC genotype, the content of IL-6 in serum was higher both in comparison with healthy (P < 0.01) and in comparison with patients without signs of this extrahepatic manifestation (P < 0.01). In patients with chronic hepatitis C with mixed cryoglobulinemia, the presence of CG/GG genotypes was associated not only with the highest serum IL-6 content, but also with the presence of more pronounced autoimmune disorders due to a higher content of RF IgM (P = 0.04) and mixed cryoglobulins (P = 0.03) in serum, in comparison with patients who had the CC genotype. Moreover, the presence of more pronounced immune disorders in patients with HCV-associated mixed cryoglobulinemia in the presence of CG/GG genotypes was accompanied by more frequent manifestation of severe general weakness (P = 0.003), arthralgia (P = 0.02) and the formation of Meltzer’s triad. Conclusion. The frequency of detection of the G-allele, namely the CG/GG genotypes of the IL-6 gene polymorphism, is the highest in patients with HCV-associated mixed cryoglobulinemia (90.3 %). The presence of CG/GG genotypes in patients with chronic hepatitis C with mixed cryoglobulinemia contributes to more pronounced immunological disorders due to the highest content of IL-6, mixed cryoglobulins, and RF IgM in serum, which causes the manifestation of the clinical symptoms of this hepatic manifestation.

Sjögren Syndrome and Cryoglobulinemic Glomerulonephritis

We report the case of a 53-year-old woman with Sjögren syndrome and cryoglobulinemia. The patient presented with nephrotic syndrome, hematuria, and reduced estimated glomerular filtration rate. The kidney biopsy revealed diffuse endocapillary proliferation and leukocyte exudation with focal intraluminal hyaline thrombi, prominent tubulointerstitial inflammation, and vasculitis. Diffuse granular mesangial and segmental to global capillary wall staining was observed on immunofluorescence with antisera to C3 and immunoglobulin M (IgM), with less intense staining indicative of IgG and κ and λ light chains. A biopsy diagnosis of Sjögren syndrome-related cryoglobulinemic membranoproliferative glomerulonephritis and vasculitis was rendered. Subsequent investigations revealed the presence of circulating type II cryoglobulins with cryocrit of 9%. Although rare, Sjögren syndrome is the most common cause of non-hepatitis C virus-related mixed cryoglobulinemia. We discuss the possible pathogenic mechanisms involved in the development of mixed cryoglobulinemia and its evolution to lymphoma, as best described in the setting of hepatitis C virus infection. Although the specific antigen involved is unknown, it is likely that the mixed cryoglobulinemia in Sjögren syndrome is triggered by the long-term B-cell stimulation, resulting in clonal proliferation of B cells. Additional chromosomal aberrations and cytokine milieu alterations, as seen in hepatitis C virus infection, may result in prolonged B-cell survival and progression to non-Hodgkin lymphoma.

Molecular Signatures of Hepatitis C Virus (HCV)-Induced Type II Mixed Cryoglobulinemia (MCII)

The role of hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection in the induction of type II mixed cryoglobulinemia (MCII) and the possible establishment of related lymphoproliferative disorders, such as B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma (B-NHL), is well ascertained. However, the molecular pathways involved and the factors predisposing to the development of these HCV-related extrahepatic complications deserve further consideration and clarification. To date, several host- and virus-related factors have been implicated in the progression to MCII, such as the virus-induced expansion of selected subsets of B-cell clones expressing discrete immunoglobulin variable (IgV) gene subfamilies, the involvement of complement factors and the specific role of some HCV proteins. In this review, we will analyze the host and viral factors taking part in the development of MCII in order to give a general outlook of the molecular mechanisms implicated.